This document appears to be a thesis submitted for a PhD in Education. It discusses a study conducted on teacher competencies and teaching practices in Workers Welfare Model Schools in Pakistan. The study aimed to identify essential teacher competencies for school effectiveness and examine classroom practices. Data was collected through questionnaires, classroom observations, interviews and document analysis. The findings indicated that while teachers were aware of standards for effective teaching, they did not fully implement them in the classroom. The study also found issues with how teachers utilized evaluation techniques. The implications focus on shifting to more collaborative teaching styles and developing mentoring and monitoring for teacher education programs.

1. A STUDY OF TEACHER COMPETENCIES AND
TEACHING PRACTICES FOR SCHOOL
EFFECTIVENESS IN WORKERS
WELFARE MODEL SCHOOLS
TAHIR KALEEM SIDDIQUI
Reg. No.52/FUCE/PhD.Edu-2004
FOUNDATION UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES
RAWALPINDI-PAKISTAN
2010

2. A STUDY OF TEACHER COMPETENCIES AND
TEACHING PRACTICES FOR SCHOOL
EFFECTIVENESS IN WORKERS
WELFARE MODEL SCHOOLS
By
TAHIR KALEEM SIDDIQUI
Reg. No.52/FUCE/PhD.Edu-2004
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in Education at Foundation University College of Liberal Arts and
Sciences, Rawalpindi
FOUNDATION UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES
RAWALPINDI-PAKISTAN
2010
ii

3. Dedicated
to
The loving memories
of my mother
iii

4. FORWARDING SHEET
This thesis entitled “A Study of teacher competencies and teaching
practices for School Effectiveness in Workers Welfare Model Schools” submitted
by Tahir Kaleem Siddiqui in partial fulfillment of the requirement, for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Education, under my guidance and supervision, is forwarded
for further necessary action.
Prof. Dr. M. Maqsud Alam Bukhari
Advisor
iv

5. APPROVAL SHEET OF THE COMMITTEE
This thesis entitled “A Study of teacher competencies and teaching
practices for School Effectiveness in Workers Welfare Model Schools” submitted
by Tahir Kaleem Siddiqui in partial fulfillment of the requirement, for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Education, is hereby accepted.
Prof. Dr. M. Maqsud Alam Bukhari
Supervisor
_______________
External Examiner
Dr. Saeed Anwar
______________
External Examiner
Dr. Ayesha Akbar
Dr. Muhammad Tayyab Alam Prof. Dr. M. Maqsud Alam Bukhari
Head of Department (R&D) Principal/Dean
FUCLAS FUCLAS
Dated: _____________
v

6. AUTHOR’S DECLARATION
Except where otherwise acknowledged in the text, this thesis represents the
original research of the author. The material contained herein has not been submitted
either whole or in part, for a degree at this or any other university.
Tahir Kaleem Siddiqui
vi

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my deep & sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Dr.
Maqsood Alam Bukhari, for his inspiring guidance, constant encouragement and
constructive criticism. His guidance at different stages of the research enabled me to
compile this study.
I am highly indebted and grateful to Dr. Muhammad Tayyab Alam for his
professional support, when I was stuck-up with different issues. My gratitude is due to
Dr. Mushtaq-ur-Rehman, former Director, IER, in completing this research. Dr.
Shahid Siddiqui was very kind to go through the draft copy and gave his valuable
suggestions in improving it.
I also feel indebted to Raheela Tajwar for her sincere cooperation and
encouragement during the progress of this study.
I will be failing in my duty, to acknowledge the support of Mr. M. Saeed
Ahmed Khan, Secretary, Workers Welfare Fund, for his valuable guidance and
providing me the enabling working conditions, to continue the research, in addition to
my official duties. I admit that without his support, it would not have been possible to
complete the study.
I owe special thanks to my wife, who had the patience to bear with me during
the long time that I spent on this study, disrupting normal routines.
I also express deep gratitude to all the administrators, teachers and students of
Foundation University for their cooperation during my research work.
My thanks are also due to my family members for their love, encouragement
and sincere wishes in completing this research.
Tahir Kaleem Siddiqui
vii

8. ABSTRACT
This research was designed to study the instructional process competencies
through class room observations in Workers Welfare Model Schools (WWMS)
established by Workers Welfare Fund (WWF), a subsidiary organization of Ministry
of Labour and Manpower, Government of Pakistan. The organization runs 75 schools
throughout Pakistan. The major purpose of the study was to identify essential teacher
competencies for school effectiveness and find out class room practices used by
Workers Welfare Model Schools teachers. The study was also aimed at exploring
indicators of school effectiveness. A mixed method approach was adopted to study the
state of school effectiveness. Forty sample schools were selected from a total of 75 on
all Pakistan basis. Multistage sampling technique was used for sample selection.
Twenty principals, 400 teachers and 80 classroom observations constituted the
population for this study. The data collected through the questionnaire, classroom
observations, focused group discussion and official documents. Data collected through
afore-mentioned instruments was tabulated, analyzed by both qualitative and
quantitative techniques and interpreted category-wise. To analyze the data, chi-square
test was applied to find out the significance of difference among the opinions of the
respondents. On the basis of results obtained from the analysis of data through chi
square test, statements were accepted or rejected.
Major findings of the study indicated that though most of the teachers are
aware of standards of teaching for school effectiveness to some extent but they are not
implementing these standards in their classrooms. Also majority of the teachers are
not using evaluation techniques properly. The teachers, however, agreed with two
major characteristics of the teacher education for school effectiveness i.e. content
knowledge and pedagogical competencies. The major implication of the study is to
shift from lecture paradigm to collaborative, interactive and democratic teaching style
and develop mentoring as well as monitoring teacher education programme for overall
school effectiveness. Also a need emerges to find out as to why teachers, despite
having knowledge of the required techniques, do not follow the standards of school
effectiveness.
viii

9. CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 5
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 5
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 5
4.4 METHODOLOGY 5
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 6
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 WORKERS WELFARE SCHOOLS 7
2.2 SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS 8
2.3 SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS IN PAKISTAN 16
2.4 TEACHER AND EDUCATION 17
2.4.1 Importance of a Teacher 19
2.4.2 Characteristics of a Teacher in Islamic Perspective 19
2.4.3 Professional Characteristic of Teacher 21
2.5 COMPETENCIES OF THE TEACHER 21
2.5.1 Academic Competencies 23
2.5.2 Methodological Competencies of Teachers 23
2.5.2.1 Lesson planning 23
2.5.2.2 Use of questions 26
2.5.3 Improvement of Student Attitudes 28
2.5.4 Classroom Management 28
2.5.5 Time Management Skill 29
2.5.6 Development of Self-confidence in Students 30
2.6 TEACHER EDUCATION AND IMPORTANCE OF
TEACHER EDUCATION 31
2.6.1 Concept of Training in Education 33
ix

10. 2.6.2 Teacher Training and Professional Development 34
2.6.3 Professional Development 35
2.7 PROVISION OF TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN
PAKISTAN 36
2.8 TYPES OF TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAMMES 38
2.8.1 Formal Institutes for Teacher Training. 38
2.8.2 Non Formal Institutes for Teacher Training 38
2.8.3 Field Based Institutes for Teacher Training. 38
2.9 TEACHER TRAINING IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 39
(1947)
2.10 LEVELS OF TEACHER TRAINING IN PAKISTAN 41
2.10.1 Primary Teaching Certificate / Diploma in
Education 41
2.10.2 Certificate in Teaching (CT) 41
2.10.3 Bachelor of Education (B.Ed) 41
2.10.4 Master of Education (M.Ed) 41
2.10.5 Master of Education (M.A) 42
2.11 TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS IN HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE 43
2.11.1 Normal Schools 43
2.11.2 Elementary Colleges 44
2.11.3 Colleges of Education 44
2.11.4 Institutes of Education and Research (IER) 44
2.12 TEACHER EDUCATION IN INTERNATIONAL
PERSPECTIVE 45
2.13 CHALLENGES FOR TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE
TWENTY FIRST CENTURY 55
2.14 STUDENT TEACHING PRACTICE 56
3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 59
3.1 DESIGN OF THE STUDY 59
3.1.1 Sampling 59
x

11. 3.2 TOOLS FOR COLLECTION OF DATA 60
3.2.1 Document Analysis 60
3.2.2 Focused Group Discussion (FGDs)– Principal 60
3.2.3 Survey Questionnaire Teachers 61
3.2.4 Observation Checklist 61
3.3 VALIDATION OF THE RESEARCH TOOLS 61
3.4 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 62
3.4.1 Procedure for data collection 62
3.4.2 Data Collection and Data Analysis 62
4 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 65
5 SUMMARY, DISCUSSION FINDINGS/CONCLUSIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS 121
5.1 SUMMARY 121
5.2 DISCUSSION 121
5.2.1 Methodological Competencies 123
5.2.2 Motivational Competencies 125
5.2.3 Material Utilization Competencies 129
5.2.4 Instructional Process Competencies 131
5.2.5 Teaching Evaluation Competencies 135
5.2.6 Focused Group Discussion – Principals 138
5.3 FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS 141
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS 145
BIBLIGRAPHY 148
APPENDICES 160
xi

12. LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Page
3.1 Target Population 58
3.2 Sample for study 59
4.1 Gender wise ratio 65
4.2 Age-wise 66
4.3 Academic qualification wise distribution of respondents 67
4.4 Professional qualification wise distributions of respondents 68
4.5 Job experience wise distribution of respondents 69
4.6 The teacher uses problem solving methods in teaching. 70
4.7 The teacher uses individual teaching methods for individual differences 71
4.8 The teacher utilizes teaching situation effectively 72
4.9 The teacher appreciates students for correct answers 73
4.10 The teacher gives hints to students in order to lead them to the 74
correct answers.
4.11 The teacher uses reinforcement effectively. 75
4.12 The teacher selects appropriate and relevant teaching materials 76
4.13 The teacher uses prescribed teaching tools 77
4.14 The teacher uses personal teaching tools in addition to the prescribed 78
tools
4.15 The teacher applies contemporary knowledge and new ideas in 79
teaching
4.16 The teacher uses different questioning techniques 80
4.17 The teacher manages discipline in his/her class room. 81
4.18 The teacher uses time management techniques in teaching 82
4.19 The teacher manages classroom activities properly. 83
4.20 The teacher makes clear statement of objectives of lesson to students 84
before starting teaching
4.21 The teacher prepares course contents properly 85
4.22 The teacher uses various evaluation techniques 86
4.23 The teacher assesses student’s behavior effectively 87
xii

13. 4.24 The teacher assesses students own work adequately 88
4.25 The teacher always keeps record of individual students 89
4.26 Higher academic qualification improves teacher’s job effectiveness. 90
4.27 The ability of a teacher to perform effectively is an inborn quality 91
4.28 Professional qualification improves teacher’s job effectively 92
4.29 The teacher uses evaluation data to improve job situation. 93
4.30 The teacher has direct interaction with his/her students 94
4.31 Use of problem solving methods in teaching 95
4.32 Use of individual teaching methods for individual differences 96
4.33 Utilization of teaching situation effectively 97
4.34 Students were appreciated after correct answers 98
4.35 Students were given hints for correct answers. 99
4.36 Students were given second chance for correct answer. 100
4.37 Used reinforcement effectively. 101
4.38 Selected appropriate and relevant teaching material. 102
4.39 Used personal teaching tools effectively 103
4.40 Used own devised teaching tools 104
4.41 Applied contemporary knowledge, new ideas in teaching 105
4.42 Used questioning techniques 106
4.43 Presented course contents in the classroom properly 107
4.44 Used time management techniques in teaching 108
4.45 Managing classroom. 109
4.46 Manage discipline in the classroom 110
4.47 Used various evaluation techniques 111
4.48 Assessed student’s behavior effectively 112
4.49 Assessed students own work effectively 113
4.50 Presentation and explanation etc ability 114
4.51 Knowledge of subject matter. 115
4.52 General knowledge 116
4.53 Teacher student interaction. 117
4.54 Ability to motivate students. 118
xiii

14. 5.1 Items analysis of methodological competencies 122
5.2 Items analysis of motivational competencies 126
5.3 Items analysis of material utilization competencies 128
5.4 Items analysis of instructional process competencies 131
5.5 Items analysis of teaching evaluation competencies 135
xiv

15. LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Page
4.1 Gender wise 65
4.2 Age-wise 66
4.3 Academic qualification wise distribution of respondents 67
4.4 Professional qualification wise distributions of respondents 68
4.5 Job experience wise distribution of respondents 69
4.6 The teacher uses problem solving methods in teaching. 70
4.7 The teacher uses individual teaching methods for individual differences 71
4.8 The teacher utilizes teaching situation effectively 72
4.9 The teacher appreciates students for correct answers 73
4.10 The teacher gives hints to students in order to lead them to the 74
correct answers.
4.11 The teacher uses reinforcement effectively. 75
4.12 The teacher selects appropriate and relevant teaching materials 76
4.13 The teacher uses prescribed teaching tools 77
4.14 The teacher uses personal teaching tools in addition to the prescribed 78
tools
4.15 The teacher applies contemporary knowledge and new ideas in 79
teaching
4.16 The teacher uses different questioning techniques 80
4.17 The teacher manages discipline in his/her class room. 81
4.18 The teacher uses time management techniques in teaching 82
4.19 The teacher manages classroom activities properly. 83
4.20 The teacher makes clear statement of objectives of lesson to students 84
before starting teaching
4.21 The teacher prepares course contents properly 85
4.22 The teacher uses various evaluation techniques 86
4.23 The teacher assesses student’s behavior effectively 87
4.24 The teacher assesses students own work adequately 88
4.25 The teacher always keeps record of individual students 89
xv

16. 4.26 Higher academic qualification improves teacher’s job effectiveness. 90
4.27 The ability of a teacher to perform effectively is an inborn quality 91
4.28 Professional qualification improves teacher’s job effectively 92
4.29 The teacher uses evaluation data to improve job situation. 93
4.30 The teacher has direct interaction with his/her students 94
4.31 Use of problem solving methods in teaching 95
4.32 Use of individual teaching methods for individual differences 96
4.33 Utilization of teaching situation effectively 97
4.34 Students were appreciated after correct answers 98
4.35 Students were given hints for correct answers. 99
4.36 Students were given second chance for correct answer. 100
4.37 Used reinforcement effectively. 101
4.38 Selected appropriate and relevant teaching material. 102
4.39 Used personal teaching tools effectively 103
4.40 Used own devised teaching tools 104
4.41 Applied contemporary knowledge, new ideas in teaching 105
4.42 Used questioning techniques 106
4.43 Presented course contents in the classroom properly 107
4.44 Used time management techniques in teaching 108
4.45 Managing classroom. 109
4.46 Manage discipline in the classroom 110
4.47 Used various evaluation techniques 111
4.48 Assessed student’s behavior effectively 112
4.49 Assessed students own work effectively 113
4.50 Presentation and explanation etc ability 114
4.51 Knowledge of subject matter. 115
4.52 General knowledge 116
4.53 Teacher student interaction. 117
4.54 Ability to motivate students. 118
xvi

17. CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
School effectiveness has been one of the major concerns of practitioners and
policy makers, not only in Pakistan but also in other countries. School effectiveness
encompasses students’ academic achievements and development of their personality
together with the teachers’ development and improvement in school milieu.
In Pakistan, school effectiveness is generally, measured by scholastic results
shown by students at various levels. The higher the number of grades and the pass
percentages, the more effective the school is considered. While making the pass
percentages as a standard for school effectiveness, many factors may be overlooked. It is
possible that the “Good” achievement may be because of the fact that the students
obtained by supplemental coaching out side the school, by those who can afford this,
which indirectly indicates that obtaining of good results is not because of teaching at the
school but is dependant on the “paying capacity” of those who can financially afford
taking coaching outside the school hours.
The above considerations lead to the inference, that school effectiveness is
generally judged only by grades obtained rather than more effective elements leading to
holistic development of children. The mere holistic view of effectiveness, deals with
overall development of student personality, whereas scholastic achievement, teacher’s
training and teacher student relationship are basic components of school development, as
a result of professional development.
1

18. According to Scheerens (2000), effectiveness of the school is measured as to what
extent goals are achieved by a school, with comparison to other similar school. Cheng
(1996) described, school effectiveness is the ability of the intuitions to optimize the
working or the stage to which schools can practice its routines, when the required input is
made. In effective schools, condition exist, to an extent that the overall achievements of
the students indicate that they are able to attain the basics, which are essential to make
them learn the skills to be successful in next follow up level in the learning process
(Kunwar, 2001, p.85).
Long and Pinder (1995), identify a range of key issues in school effectiveness,
wherein teacher development is primary element besides curriculum development and
parental involvement. They both proposed a close relationship between teacher
development and school effectiveness.
Effective and target oriented education, is conceived as the most powerful
medium and a source to effect required change in the social setup of a country. This,
however, does not take place in isolation, but is accomplished by the teacher, who is
required to be major player of change during the entire process. With this focal position,
the teacher has to be equipped to undertake this most important role and has to be
effectively prepared and trained professionally. This training process must be accorded
the highest priority by every one concerned for improving the deliverance of education. A
teacher’s profession is very challenging for as he can play an effective role in nation
building. Teachers, who can shoulder this responsibility, have to be trained in the
professional knowledge and should be encouraged to adopt the profession. The other real
aspect, would be inducting teachers through Professional Development. The adequacy of
2

19. this training process, is dependant on required motivations, dedication and a will for
continuous professional development achievement in this profession. It is a rather
continuous and life-long effort.
Poetter (1997) is of the opinion that such people, who are normally not vocal,
have to be found to impart education. Certainly, there is more to teaching than feeling
affection for children and an eagerness to serve school / children well. Moreover, when
teachers forget that children come first their students and society are in serious danger.
Therefore, teachers in schools are both among the “most powerful” and the “most
stressed” individuals in the world. They are powerful because of their influence over
young minds and they are stressed because of the responsibilities that are often out of
proportion to their authority (Dark, 1995).
The reality is that schools could change and develop only, if the teachers within
the institutions, are empowered to develop themselves (Bayne-Jardme, 1994; Doyle and
Hartle, 1985). Realizing the importance of education, Lawal (2003) points out that "the
learning process is a basic element of cultural progress without which no individual can
attain professional development.
From the aforementioned, it transpires that it is through effective teacher
education programs, that we can improve teaching, which is the gateway to knowing,
learning and teaching. These help teachers to develop as “effective teachers”. Teacher
education programmes are directed to equip the teachers with professional skills, know
how and motivation to encourage students to acquire knowledge and attitudes, about
society, wherein they live. This process is expected to result in teachers who posses the
required qualities of an effective professional teacher for good education and social
3

20. achievements. With these requirements, teacher education assumes an essential role in
educational process dealing with acquisition of effective teaching skills and techniques.
The development and improvement of education by a nation requires, that all the
essential elements for improving training in education must be provided, including,
selection of professional and scholastically qualified teachers. Such teachers consider
education as a sacred mission for improvement of education in the country so as enable it
to complete with other nations.
To make teaching profession more acceptable and professional, it is essential that
research in teacher education should assume a pivotal role. This must include a
transmission and acquisition of knowledge, so that those who are trained are able to
realize the impact that the training, would have for the entire economy as well as the
society.
In addition to professional training, teachers should be trained in learning
practical ethics related to education and various models made for school effectiveness
and teacher education. These are open for further research in this direction.
Arguing the need for an effective teacher education program, Lawal (2003)
indicated that such persons will be able to deliver effective teaching. They are expected
to employ the use of teaching aids to improve their delivery process, and manage the
students in the class, through applications of better methods and manage and control their
classes for effective learning.
The role of teachers in making professional knowledge available to their
colleagues and students, with on motivation impact on teachers' job effectiveness, are
essential for educational development.
4

21. Keeping in view the above established linkage between teacher it is required to
explore indicators and standards for an effective teacher which may lead to improve
school effectiveness.
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The present research was designed to explore essential teacher competencies for
school effectiveness and find out, if classroom teaching practices used in Workers
Welfare Model Schools (WWMS) are consistent with these competencies?
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The objectives of this study were:
1. Evaluate teacher competencies skills for school effectiveness
2. To explore elements of school effectiveness
3. To observe classroom environment and to assess teachers competence
4. To suggest measures to enhance the school effectiveness in WWMS.
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1) What are the basics of school effectiveness?
2) Which teacher’s competencies are essential for school effectiveness?
3) To what extent are these competencies applied in the classroom?
1.4 METHODOLOGY
Worker Welfare Fund is running 75 schools all over Pakistan. A sample of 40
schools was selected randomly. Multistage sampling technique was adopted to select the
sample. Twenty (20) principals (for focused group discussion), 400 teachers and 80
classrooms (for observations) constituted the population for this study. Based on related
5

22. literature review, the instrument of data collection was developed for the focused group.
Data were collected through questionnaires, classroom observations, interviews and
official documents.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The research is significant, as it will give policy direction on achieving school
effectiveness, which is a rising issue for academia and the outcomes from this study will
facilitate the process of professional development for school effectiveness. It will also
help in developing model of school effectiveness. It will further establish a foundation of
teacher education program. Teachers in the context of Workers Welfare Fund schools
may revise their curricula on the basis of this study. Private sector may also use findings
of this study for improving their working environment.
Federal and Provincial Governments, Private Sector and Civil Society
Organizations engaged directly or in providing imperative education may find the study
useful in future research, and to provide guidelines for developing and managing teacher
education program in Pakistan.
6

23. CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter deals with the review of related literature. It explores the factors
relevant to the effective teacher education. The chapter draws seminal researcher
focusing on the constituents, some on the identification of factors, of an effective teacher
training for Workers Welfare Model Schools in the country. In the final section, a critical
review of the related studies is presented.
2.1 WORKERS WELFARE SCHOOLS
The WWF is supplementing the existing educational facilities in the country,
sponsored by the public & private sectors, by taking the initiative to establish its own
school system, for the workers’ children, so as to provide them with an opportunity of
standard and quality education. This is a humble effort by the WWF to provide most
convenient access to the children, for developing their personality and elevating the
social standing of those involved & the entire workers community. The WWF school
system is focused on developing the personality of worker’s children to make them
effective citizens of the nation by contributing to economic prosperity.
The Government of Pakistan is working hard to elevate the literacy level, by
realizing the significance of the UNO slogan ‘Education for All’. To achieve this
objective, our government, in collaboration with private sector, NGOs international and
other donor agencies has taken revolutionary initiatives to kick off sustained campaigns
to up lift the literacy level.
7

24. Workers Welfare Fund (WWF) is striving hard to achieve the national objective
to increase the literacy level. It has initiated a number of educational schemes, to educate
the children of industrial workers and to bring them at par with other segments of the
society. In this regard, a number of schemes have been initiated which include; (i)
establishing educational institutions, (ii) scholarships, (iii) quality education programme
and (iv) technical education.
The WWF is conscious of the fact that the poor industrial workers do not have the
means and finances to provide quality education to their children. The WWF had to
intervene and fill in the “financial gap” by providing free education. The WWF has not
restricted its role to filling the financial gap alone, but has also made genuine efforts to
provide quality education, which would make these children useful addition to the
national economy.
WWF has reflected its perpetual commitment by establishing a well coordinated
and harmonious network of seventy five schools, all over the country, during the past, to
educate the children of the industrial workers, a hardworking but poor segment of the
society. Through these institutions, WWF is imparting quality education to approximately
20,000 children in coordination with its provincial counterparts, in the remote areas of the
country. These schools are providing free of cost quality education to the children of
workers in a conducive and receptive manner.
2.2 SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS
School effectiveness has been one of the major concerns of practitioners and
policy makers, throughout the world. The notion of school effectiveness encompasses
8

25. students’ academic achievements and development of their personality together with the
development of teachers.
The concept of effective school was introduced in America in 1960s. A number
of American universities and research institutes worked on this issue. Coleman (1966) is
of the view that difference of school does not make a significance difference in student’s
achievement. The stress was on family and the environment in which the children
(student) live, as it will have substantial influence on achievement and subsequent
performance. This leads to the opinion that schools and teachers make no difference.
This research accepted that school plays an insignificant portion in the education
of the student, curriculum was considered to be considerably important to meet the
child’s requirement. This was the thinking in 60s and curriculum provision was
considered as the main tier and function of schools continuing with this thinking was that
the teachers are not involved in the classrooms; and no linkage was developed between
the teaching style and curriculum development (Hopkins, 1987).
Contrary to 1960s, during 1970s, 1980s and gradually, the consideration of an
effective contribution to a students achievement assumed education became an important
role and started drawing greater attention of the research scholar. Bookover et al. (1979)
supported the concept that schools could make a difference, to a child’s attainment. This
negated the views argued by Coleman, that the effects of the home and family
background outweigh the effect of school. Teachers thus assumed a pivotal role and
become the focus or tools of effectiveness (Biddle, Good and Brophy, 1975).
9

26. Reynolds (1976) started work in England on ‘School Difference Research’. The
results provided and established the concept of school effectiveness. He published his
findings, in an article in the New Society Journal. His work was continued by Edmonds
(1978), who identified factors of effective schools, that, he found made a difference to
performance and achievement.
Reynolds (1985) produced, a study on school effectiveness, which made it
indicated that there was variation among schools and clear factors which indicate that
effectiveness of various school was different. In addition to the factors noted by Rutter et
al. (1979), Purkey and Smith (1985) identified criterion of school effectiveness. These
factors were organizational in content and are listed in Hopkins et al. (1994:45) as:
1. School heads are focused on given curriculum.
2. Congenial atmosphere in the institutions.
3. Stress on curriculum and teaching.
4. High expectations for childrens.
5. A clear evaluation and monitoring system.
6. In-service and on-going training.
7. Help of the parents.
School effectiveness is focused at the development of system, instead of
individual, who would in anyway benefit from the process as a whole Fullan (1985) and
Mortimore et al. (1988) added some ‘process factors’ to this list, i.e.
• Continuous staff envelopment,
• Spare some time during school hours for discussion with colleagues,
• Priorities for development must be sharply focused,
10

27. • The impact of change in teaching is also dependent on puralled changes in the
conditions within school,
• Staff participating in effective school must be supported an project should be
“data Driven” in sense of complete information for evaluation should guide
participant for improvement,
• Avoid bureaucratic implementation of the project,
• Quick reminds applied in participating school and classrooms.
• Autonomy of school is necessary for successful implementation of effective
school project.
Crandall et al. (1982 and 1986), Huberman and Miles (1984), Hargreaves (1984),
Rosenholtz (1989), Louis and Miles (1990) and Wilson and Corcoran (1988) were
involved in substantial research, during the eighties, when focus of school effectiveness
research was shifted to school improvement.
This move started as an acceptable way of looking at the educational process in
teaching institutions. Clift and Nuttall (1987) are of the opinion that the happening or
occurrences among teachers and students and assessment of those who made the centre of
attention of research in the field.
Hopkins (1987 b) played a significant role in school improvement. Hopkins et al.
(1994: 102) gave five principles for improvement of the school.
1. The vision is that (school in the future) these must be equal opportunity for school
community to participate.
2. In school, because it has its vision, will see in external pressures for change and
important opportunities to secure its internal priorities.
11

28. 3. The school will seek to create and maintain conditions in which all members of
the school community can learn successfully.
4. The school will seek to adopt and develop structures that encourage collaboration
and lead to the empowerment of individuals and groups.
5. The school will seek to promote the view that the monitoring and evaluation of
quality is a responsibility in which all members of staff share.
The schools have a clear line of involvement throughout the teaching hierarchy of
school. Development is encouraged and initiated at all levels from whole school systems
through departments down to including the teachers and the pupils in the classroom. This
whole school approach must come from the imaginative leadership of the Head teacher
who has the confidence to manage in Caldwell and Spinks’s (1988) terms a collaborative
‘self-managing school’.
Leadership in a school plays an effective role through the institutions of the
Headmaster / Principal. In the context of school transformational leadership that places
emphasis on process, shared vision, school culture and energizing participation is now
crucial. In the ‘learning school’ Holly and South worth (1989) quote Stenhouse
(1975:53) who says ‘there can be no curriculum development without teacher
development’. So in their terms:
“…..a learning school is a developing school’. A learning school being
characterized by five levels of learning. Children’s learning, teacher
learning, staff learning, organizational learning and leadership learning.
We regard school improvement as a different direction make a difference
in education, that increases the achievement of learners besides
strengthening the capacity of the school’s capacity for institution for
controlling the change”.
12

29. Schools effectiveness is now considered as a means of change in the interest of
students. Reynolds provided a comparative table of characteristics of the two fields that
contrasts their approaches.
Comparative table of school effectiveness and school improvement
No. School Effectiveness School Improvement
a Focus on schools. Focus on individual teachers or
groups of teachers
b Focus on school organization Focus on school process.
c Data driven with emphasis on Rare empirical evaluation of the
outcomes. effects of change.
d Quantitative in orientation Qualitative in orientation
e Lack of knowledge about how to Concerned with change in schools
implement change strategies exclusively
f More concerned with schools at a More concerned with schools
point in time as changing.
g Based on research knowledge. Focus on practitioner knowledge.
h More concerned with change in pupil More concerned with journey of
outcomes school improvement than its
destination
The emphasis of school effectiveness, being on systems and outcomes, which are
both academically and socially, orientated. School improvement comes from a different
stance. This field is about “developing strategies for change that strengthens the school’s
organization, as well as implements curriculum reforms in the pursuit of students
achievement” (Reynolds et al. 1993: p.42). To add to this, Reynolds et al. also show how
the school improvement field itself changed over time.
13

30. Changing Concept of School Improvement
Indicators 1960s 1980s
Orientation Top down Bottom up
Knowledge based Elite knowledge Practitioner knowledge
Target Organization or process Curriculum based
based
Outcomes Pupil outcome orientated School process orientated
Goals Outcomes as given Outcomes as problematic
Focus School Teacher
Methodology of evaluation Quantitative Qualitative
Site Outside school Within school
Focus Part of school Whole school
Reynolds et al. (1993) observed in their paper, that there has been a paradigmatic
shift from the stance in the 60’s and 70’s to the higher level in the 80’s. The emphasis
then was on a top down approach by induction of technology in the school improvement.
The focus was on the improvement of curriculum and the internal school organization.
This thinking, however, does/did lead to any improvement and has to disagree and
definite shift was made in the 80’s which was turned as bottom up approach and was
acceptable to the people involved.
This approach, either consider active involvement of people, in the process or
involving the teacher with the school process.
14

31. Weindling (1998), therefore, suggested a series of school-based strategies and
initiatives that incorporates both ‘traditions’. They would include the following areas of
work:
1 Use the research findings on effective schools and effective teaching.
2 Gather school specific information e.g. conducting needs assessment and analysis
of student performance data.
3 Foster staff development and collegiality e.g. through team teaching, peer
coaching and Investors in people.
4 Explore a variety of teaching methods e.g. the study of teaching skills, thinking
skills and strategies such as co-operative and flexible learning.
5 Make effective use of a range of curricular initiatives – whole curricular (e.g. the
National Curriculum), T.V.E.I and subject specific.
6 Improve relations with parents and employers e.g. by introducing parental
involvement programmes and educational Business Partnerships and Compacts.
Scheerens (2000) defines “School Effectiveness” as the achievement of the school
and compare with other some standard schools "school effectiveness is seen as the degree
to which schools achieve their goals, in comparison with other schools that are equalized
in terms of student intake, through manipulation of certain conditions by the school itself
in the immediate school context. The emphasis of the teacher in the classroom with the
students is matter under discussion on review. The research is now focusing on the
reason of making a link with the learning objectives in the changing world.
15

32. Cheng (1996) – School effectiveness is ‘the capacity of the school to maximize
school functions or the degree to which the school can perform school functions, when
given a fixed amount of school input.
Herman and Herman (1994) argued that “an effective school is one in which the
conditions are such that student achievement data shows that all students evidence
acceptable minimum mastery of those essential basic skills that are pre-requisite to
success at the next level of schooling” (Kanwar 2001, p.85).
Long and Pinder (1995), identify a range of key issues in school effectiveness.
Teacher education is one of the important factors, besides curriculum development and
parental involvement (Kevin Holloway et al., 1998). They both proposed a close
relationship between teacher development and school effectiveness. Barth (1990) offers a
particularly interesting parallel between teacher and pupil development.
2.3 SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS IN PAKISTAN
School effectiveness, in Pakistan, has been viewed in different contexts.
Educational plans have no clear-cut provision on school effectiveness. Although
improving curriculum and teacher’s training has been the main thrust of all major
policies, yet, school effectiveness is a major concern from two standpoints: quality of
teaching and outcomes of students.
In Pakistan, school effectiveness is generally, measured by results obtained by
students at various levels. The higher the number of grades and the pass percentage,
more effective the school is considered. This is, however, not the correct approach, as
school effectiveness should deal with overall development of student personality,
16

33. whereas scholastic achievement, teacher’s training, teacher taught relationship are basic
components of school development, as a result of Professional Development.
While making the pass percentages as a standard for school effectiveness, many
factors may be overlooked. There are possibilities that “Good” outcome may be done to
supplemental coaching out side the school, by those who can afford this, which indirectly
indicates that obtaining good results is not because of teaching at the school but is
dependant on the “paying capacity” of those who can afford for coaching outside the
school hours.
The above considerations lead us to the inference, that school effectiveness is
judged only by grades obtained rather than more effective elements leading to holistic
development of children. Factors such as developing the learning skills, building
confidence to face life, attitude and perception towards life, etc, or in other words the
intellectual growth stands to be neglected (Siddiqui, 2007, p. 115).
2.4 TEACHER AND EDUCATION
Education is a process of learning, which is aimed at improving moral, cultural,
social and intellectual attributes of the student individually as well as member of social
group. The process of learning is looked at as training in the filled of morals for
individuals through which their potentialities are developed, the traits of the creator are
inculcated in them and the culture of the people is transmitted to the coming
generations (Khalid, 1998). It is an instrument to change the social, cultural, economic
and political set up of the society. It is considered a key to development.
17

34. According to Allana (1987), education is a vitally important aspect of life. It is
the way in which life attempts to realize the noblest form of existence and a flourishing
humanity. It is the process through which individuals, groups and nations endeavor to
achieve their ideals and aspirations.
In education, the ultimate purpose of teacher is to help student to learn, often in a
school. The aim is a course of study, planning of lesson, including learning and thinking
skills. All these skills referred to pedagogical skills of a teacher. The teaching profession
demands full devotion towards continues learning..
Teacher’s importance in modern era has acquired new dimension. They not only
have to impart subject matter to the pupil but also help him in use of knowledge for
developing the abilities and talents with which he is born. If we wish to bring a
productive change, to raise the standard of education, it is imperative to recruit teachers
who not only have proficiency in their subject, but also have required a positive attitude
towards education and children.
The success of any educational system depends on good teachers. We cannot
replace the teachers with any other type of instructional material. It has been well said
that teachers are the best educational system. So, in an educational system, teacher is the
basic factor for its success. A teacher is more than what is commonly talked about. His
duties of profession have many other dimensions (Deen, 2000, pp 24-25)
The effective learning depends upon quality of teaching which requires
individuals who are academically able and who care about the well being of children and
youth. (Highland Council Education, Culture and Sport Service, 2007)
18

35. 2.4.1 Importance of Teacher
Teacher’s importance in modern era has acquired new dimensions. They not only
have to impart subject matter to the pupil but also help him in use of knowledge for
developing the abilities and talents with which he is born. If we are committed to bring
about really a productive change, to raise the standards of education, it is imperative to
recruit teachers who not only have the subject matter proficiency, but also have required
a positive attitude towards education and children.
Teachers are the builders of our new generation. Unless we have the most
dedicated, hard working and trained teachers in our educational institution, we cannot
educate good citizens for tomorrow. This in turn depends on the effectiveness with which
they have been taught by their own teachers in the classrooms (Govt. of Pakistan 1977).
The success of any educational system depends upon good teachers. We cannot
replace the teachers with any other type of instructional material. It has been well said
that the teacher of a school are always batter than the system of education, teacher is the
basic factor for its success. A teacher is more than what is commonly talked about him.
His duties of profession have many dimensions. He helps students to learn things (Deen,
2000, pp 24-25).
The teaching importance is vital element in enhancing acquisition of knowledge
in the school.
2.4.2 Characteristics of a Teacher in Islamic Perspective
Teaching according to the Islamic concept is a calling of the prophets. It is
certainly an honorable activity, as opposed to an activity, which is merely useful. The
19

36. Muslim tradition bestows great respect upon the teacher. In fact, teaching was considered
to be an act of worship performed to please Allah. Thus, even during the period of
Muslim decadence, men of wealth and position considered it a duty to spare some their
time for teaching a few students (Qureshi, 1975). Ghazali lists the following
characteristics of a teacher:
1 The teacher should follow the example of the prophet and seek no remuneration
for teaching the students. The only reward he should hope for is the pleasure of
Allah.
2 He should be perfectly honest with the students and should not give them the
yazahs (license for teaching before they are worthy of them).
3 A teacher should never abuse a fellow teacher before a student. On the contrary,
he should teach his subject in a way that it creates love for other subjects also.
4 The teacher must consider the students intellectual level before presenting a
subject to them. The teacher must guard against the teaching of a matter, which is
beyond his comprehension.
5 The teacher should practice what he preaches, lest his deeds should contradict his
words. People are influenced only when a man presents himself as a model of his
preaching. Words devoid of action fall flat and bring ridicule to the teacher
(Khan, 1996).
A teacher is the ideal and model to be followed by students. He is the focus of
entire teaching process. A teacher must earn respect of his students by the qualities that
he possesses. He should grasp the meaning of education and its relation to society.
20

37. 2.4.3 Professional Characteristics of a Teacher
Literature reviewed indicates number of professional characteristic which are
basic requirement for a good teacher. Following professional characteristics are basic
component of his personality:
1 Honour of child
2 Introduction with students by giving attention
3 Participation of students in school activities
4 Addressing the individual differences; of the students
5 Importance to theory as well as practice
6 Source of assessment in the classroom
7 Ask questions with consideration in lecture style
2.5 COMPETENCIES OF THE TEACHER
Application of well coordinated and intermingled approach to knowledge to
contently re-visits the instructions as they plan implementation. The instructors/teachers
consider a broad and integrated set of knowledge and techniques, which planning to
revise these aspect of the competence of a teachers so, to competence what expected of a
teacher understanding about using technical advancement should be answered in the
context of the different sets of knowledge and skills that effective teachers possess. The
research in teacher’s knowledge, skills and standards suggests that teacher change with
the passage of time and develop skills like planning, designing, assessment techniques,
helping student reflective teaching, professional commitment, assessment techniques,
effective feedback and application of knowledge, what they have gained to improve
instructions;
21

38. To understand a competent teacher, we have to see to what extend they apply an
integrated knowledge that they have in planning and implementing their teaching and
revise the contents of their lesson. The other aspect of teaching competency is ability in
technological aids, which suggests that the teacher must possess knowledge and skill
about proficiency in teaching aids. This suggests that effective teachers are able to learn
planning and designing of lesson as well as the strategies to be adopted in teaching;
1. They should be thus traced in facilitating teaching and professional were
committee to acquiring knowledge throughout their life.
2. They should further be able to guide their students by properly designaty
course of studies
3. They should be able to currently use student’s output and provide him with a
correct feedback and how to make use of this in improving their teaching.
4. An instructor must be able to adequately manage the classroom.
5. Know the ways and means to motivate the students
6. The instructor must be able to understand as to how the students learn and
improve besides knowing the contents of the education method that they are
teaching.
One of the attribute of effective teaching relates to the social context of the
community, the variance in the students and the positive attributes and the deficiencies in
the children. The proficiency in technology is perceived as a means to an end (resulting
in better teaching) rather than as an end in itself (Siddiqui, 2007).
22

39. 2.5.1 Academic Competencies
Teacher must know academic matters (Kohll, 1992). Command on subject and
develop overall personality of the student. Accept the learning needs of the scientific
world. Understand the psychological basis of education and the factors, which influence
education.
2.5.2 Methodological Competencies of Teachers
Teaching Methodology is the process of teaching and the resultant learning by
developing a link between the students and the knowledge and skill contents embodied in
the curriculum Schools, through effective teaching methods, provide the required
environment to the students in learning a particular skill or an area of knowledge.
Methodology as defined by many definitions is a way of doing something in a
systematic, orderly and regular manner. Competence on the other hand refers to
possessing sufficient skill and knowledge in a particular area. Methodological
competencies are thus procedures to undertake a particular work with adequate
knowledge and skill.
2.5.2.1 Lesson planning
According to Bhatia, following five steps are necessary for teaching a lesson.
Presentation, motivation, association, generalization and application are necessary steps
for teaching a lesion.
In the classroom, the teacher has greater discretion as to the time devoted to a
given lesson. In most high school subjects, the bulk of instruction centers on lecture and
discussion. In planning instruction, the teacher must be aware of the fact that his behavior
23

40. and interaction with students vary according to the nature of the activity used during
instruction’s (Airasian, 1994).
The classroom task may be divided in two phases: The subject matter and lessons
planning.
The lesson must start with some thing to keep the students occupied at where he /
she is. The activities for this movement must be in harmony with the students’ mental and
physical level and lesson. Reading, writing, drawing or coloring may all be suitable in
particular circumstances. Most important is the need to give the children something,
which is, clear, concise and well within their capability. The aim at this stage is simply to
buy a little time of peace and quiet to deal with latecomers, lost property or any other
interruptions. Aims of teaching a lesson may be achieved by maintaining interest,
motivation and clarity in it. This certainly calls for a versatile teaching. Lesson should
be broken into smaller units for keeping every child busy due to their individual
differences in learning. The aims may not be fully achieved but may produce
reinforcement for learning (Laslett and Smith, 1984).
Starting with a general idea of what will be done during an instructional unit,
teachers move through a series of successive elaborations and specifications. Important to
this process and indicative of the way assessments are made, is the fact that teachers
typically try to visualize their teaching activities unfolding in their own classroom. In a
very real sense, teachers mentally rehearse the learning activities they contemplate using
in the classroom. There are many different instructional models that teachers can and do
follow when teaching. These models describe steps or activities that should take place
when a lesson is taught (Eby, 1992).
24

41. According to Oser et al. (1992) the teacher kept tight control over the lesson when
students' reactions did not reflect this emphasis drew on personal experiences to model
the appropriate interpretation. The manner in which this lesson was conducted and
communicated to the students as a set of values, perhaps unintended by the teacher.
Educational objectives, or achievement targets, specify what pupils are to learn
from the lesson; what they should be able to follow the instructions. Objectives describe
the expected outcome of lesson. The materials going to be in teaching must also be
specified. Nothing in advance that the lesson will require a video player, copies of the
daily newspaper, construction paper and crayons, or marbles and an inclined plane helps
the teacher prepare the needed materials. Planning also requires a description of the
teaching and learning strategies being planned to use in the classroom. The heart of
teaching process is based on the strategies or activities teachers use with their pupils.
Finally, a lesson plan should include some way to assess the success of the lesson.
Plans string together a series of instructional activities each of which encompasses
a relatively short period of time, usually ten to twenty minutes, during which pupils are
arranged in a particular way or focused on a particular process. Common classroom
activities have been catalogued and include seatwork, reading circle, recitation,
discussion, lecture, demonstration, checking work, independent study, audio-visual
presentation, tests, giving instructions, student report, games and silent reading. Clearly,
some of these activities are more common in certain subject areas and grade levels.
In planning day-to-day lesson and activities, one important consideration is the
nature of the pupil needs vis-à-vis the content of the lesson. If few pupil have had
difficulty in understanding concepts or processes presented in a prior lesson, the teacher
25

42. might select a supervised seatwork activity to provide a chance to work more closely with
those pupil. When reinforcement and pupil engagement are needed, recitation might be a
useful lesson activity (Airasian, 1994).
2.5.2.2 Use of questions
Classroom interaction involves the use of questions. The teacher's attitude is
reflected in the point and purpose of his use of questions. If these are seen as tricks and
traps designed to catch out the unwary and inattentive, then they become a source of
negative interaction. If the teacher sees questions as a way checking whether his material
is being understood, than a wrong answer can be seen as the teacher's fault and the
occasion for further explanation, rather than reprimand. Of course, this may not always
be true, but a far more positive perspective than the traditional assumptions that wrong
answers result from children's stupidity. A quiz can have its place, particularly as a way
of recapping a lesson, but in the main body of the lesson teachers' questions should be a
source of feedback rather than friction. If the lesson is to go smoothly, they should also
be short, specific questions requiring brief answers and responded to with praise if
possible, with tact if not (Laslett and Smith, 1984). Following consideration are important
when asking lower order questions. Teachers should:
1 Ask clear, not ambiguous questions,
2 Ensure that the questions focus students attention on the key elements of the
lesson,
3 Ask questions that permit teachers not only to check for student understanding,
but also to identify possible reasons for any misunderstandings that are evident
26

43. 4 Avoid excessive use of choral responses or `call outs', interacting with one student
at a time instead.
When asking `higher-order' questions, teachers should:
5 Allow generous amounts of "wait time" after they ask the questions (that is, the
time students have to answer the questions before the teacher speaks)
6 Remind the students, as necessary, that all answers are expected.
7 Whenever possible, the teacher should strive for a balance between lower-order
and higher order questions in their lessons (Anderson, 1991).
The teacher used a questioning technique known as group alerting to keep the
reading group involved. It kept all the students awake and on their toes. The teacher
asked questions first and then called on a student to respond (Sadker and Sadker, 1997).
Asking good questions is an important aspect of good teaching. All students
should have equal access to classroom questions and academic interaction. Classroom
questioning is of two types.
a. Lower-order question
Which can be answered through the processes of memory and recall. For example, "who
was president of the confederacy during the Civil War?" is a lower-order question.
Without consulting outside references, an individual can respond with the correct answer
only by recalling the information he / she has already learnt. Research indicates that
approximately 90 percent of the questions teachers ask are lower-order questions.
Ask lower-order questions when:
1 Students are at orientation stage
27

44. 2 Student are at practice stage
3 Students are at review stage.
b. Higher-order question
Which requires more demanding thought for response. These may be used for
evaluations, comparisons, causal relationships, problem divergent or solving, open-ended
thinking and despite the fact that higher-order questions have been shown to produce
increased student achievement, most teachers ask very few of them. Ask higher-order
questions when:
1 A content base has been established and you want students to manipulate
information in more sophisticated ways
2 Students are learning how to solve problems
3 Students are discussing some creative or affective topic
4 Students are making judgments about different objects
2.5.3 Improvement of Student Attitudes
Sadker and Sadker (1997) explain that changes in student’s behavior take place in
the following ways:
1 Dramatic increase in student response.
2 Statements supported by evidences.
3 Enhanced thinking process.
4 Taking inattentive in discussion.
5 Problems regarding discipline minimized to measure complexity.
6 Enhanced achievement on written tests to measures complexity in thinking.
28

45. 2.5.4 Classroom Management
The personality of a teacher coupled with his character is a very important factor
in teaching in the class rooms. However, this alone is not sufficient for effective teaching
and has to be coupled with competence which is very important with relation to the
classroom atmosphere. The class room teaching is affected to a great extent by a number
of factors which include the communication style (whether the student understand it), the
general atmosphere in the class (tense or relaxed), the rules regulations (strict or relaxed),
but in addition to these factors, the teacher plays a role by influencing the students’ view
of himself. The teacher has to efficiently manage the class which requires achieving the
set objectives /plans for the class with minimum deviations.
Good teachers carefully manage their classrooms in order to reduce disturbances.
They manage to keep all students during the class time, make teaching aids in ready
position, and make it convenient for students to watch the instructional presentations
(Sadker and Sadker, 1997).
2.5.5 Time Management Skill
The learning in a class is an important teaching variable and is a consequence of
teaching methodology. It varies significantly from teacher to teacher for the same subject
and within similar internal and external environments. The academic learning is a
consequence of effective time management in the class room. The various tasks
performed in the class room are of important consequence such as, time taken to put the
class to order and get started, the lesson plan, and the discussion on issues or questions
raised by students. All these have an impact on student learning and, therefore, require
proper attention.
29

46. Time wasters have an adverse effect on student learning in classroom. Those
students who spend more time on pursuing the course contents are able to learn more and
resultantly achieve better results. Teachers do make class room time schedules but it is
not enough, what matters are as to how effectively the allocated time used. An effective
use of class room time and schedule will have a positive effect on scholastic achievement
of students. The positive results of effective time use have prompted researchers to study
it in more detail and various terminologies have emerged as under;
• Allocated time
• Engaged time
• Academic learning time
A teacher who believes in effective class room time management will always
make a proper plan for the time to be spent in the class. He will avoid late coming as this
gives the student time to build noise level which takes time to subside and is thus a time
waster. A good time management teacher would always tell the rules and regulations to
the students to be followed in the class room along with the expected behavior (Sadker
and Sadker, 1997).
2.5.6 Development of Self-confidence in Students
Teaching is one of the most challenging professions. Working with young people
as they develop their personality is a rewarding experience. Teachers help to develop the
minds of young people to the end that they can cope with problems affecting our
country's future (Gilchrist el al., 1985).
To teach successfully, one must plan successfully. Successful planning means
knowing how to facilitate a positive learning experience for all students. The teacher uses
30

47. his/her best professional judgment to decide which method; strategy and technique will
work best for a particular situation (Dhand, 1990).
Teacher training is focused on methods, courses and areas of content specialty. It
is as if we assume that once a person knows many facts about a particular subject, he or
she can teach it to others; or in the case of elementary and secondary education, if teacher
studies a subject in depth and learns methods of instruction, he or she will then be a good
teacher (Zehm and Kohler, 1993).
2.6 TEACHER EDUCATION AND ITS IMPORTANCE
In order to make a teacher perfect or better, it is essential that course for teachers
be re-oriented, re-shaped, and re-drafted to improve the overall status of a teacher. An
adequately trained teacher will be able to deliver quality education, which will be
reflected in providing better education to the future generation of the country. The
finding of a study conducted by Fuller & Alexander (2004) indicated that students who
were taught by educationally qualified teachers showed better results. (Laczko-Kerr and
Berliner, 2002) also showed in another study that those students who were taught by un-
trained teachers performed substantially poorly, than those who were given education by
new teachers, but who were qualified.
Darling-Hammond (1999) in their study showed a substantial linkage between
good results and qualified teachers. The study also showed a substantially negative
linkage between results obtained by untrained teachers, who were comparatively new on
the jobs. (Fetler 1999) was of the view that teachers with short training did not perform
will, when compared with those who were fully trained and had longer experience.
31

48. Balon (1990) is of the view that an effective teacher can be valuable for the
students, the society, and the country. This is because of the fact, that such a teacher
educates the future generation, on whom the future of the society and the nation depends.
Such an education involves primarily an over all development of a person, to make him a
complete individual of the society.
The difference between a trained and an untrained teacher lies in methods adopted
for teaching and development of children. There is great diversity in the type of training
available to teachers and thus comparisons become difficult. Analyst have, therefore,
tried to find effects of training for teachers and are of the opinion that pedagogical
training is better than those who do not have this type of training (Hedges and Laine,
1996).
A joint study by Harvard University and the Academy of Education, indicated
that level of training obtained by a teacher contributed to rise in obtaining marks in
Math’s for grades four and five. The efforts to develop the abilities of teaching staff are
aimed at helping the faculty to acquire learning skills and knowledge about subject
matters, teaching techniques, related to learning (Main, 1985). The performance of a
teacher before the class is dependent on training provided to him. To assess how
effective is the teaching, one, has to look at the performance of teacher in the class and
the attitude of the instructor in teacher training establishments. The output of teacher is
dependent on his knowledge and ability. The effective teaching process is thus
dependent on professional training and learning (Glaser, 1989). According to Aggarwal
(1993), the training of teacher is required for formulating a positive attitude, and a
purpose for the profession.
32

49. According to Schiefelben (1921), it has been usually assumed that the quality of
teaching performance is directly influenced by the academic qualification and
professional training of teachers. Effective teaching is determined by content, mastery
and Pedagogical Skills.
2.6.1 Concept of Training in Education
What is training in education? While answering this question, we may refer to the
acquisition of academic and Professional Skills and Competencies. The phenomenon is
commonly known as Professional Development these days.
Teacher training is the planned influence of individuals’ psychological processes,
for the purpose to gain an attitudinal commitment to the philosophy, value and goals of
an organization. Staff/faculty development process focus on helping faculty member to
acquire the essential teaching/learning competences (Main, 1985).
Studies undertaken recently have tried to assess the effects of training for teachers
by making comparison among teachers who are trained in the traditional training process
and those using other means of training. These trainings can be in various forms to enable
the trainees to earn undergraduate qualification in other areas and than to enter teaching
profession and obtain certification. In the process they bypass some of the study required
by those undertaking training in proper educational training institutions. The non-
traditional teaching institutions or others like these, are given certificates, which does not
consider the requirements of teaching, that a teacher should have. These certifications
procedures should have more knowledge and practical displays (Wals and Syder 2004)
(Rivkin and Taylor, 1996), are of the view that research has established a positive linkage
33

50. between training in certified institutions and better results are obtained by students, who
are taught by such trained Teachers.
The training for teacher includes, matters related to polices and procedures, which
are aimed to provide the teachers, with all the teaching techniques that include skills,
knowledge and attitudes towards teaching, which are required for effective performance
both in the classroom as well as at the school. The training for teacher comprise some of
the under mentioned;
1. The basis or (initial) training. This is theoretical as the teacher is yet to take
classes in a school.
2. Induction, which includes helping the teachers in their activities, during the initial
years of teaching
3. Continuing Professional Development (CDP) which continues throughout the
profession of a teacher.
Norton (1985) is of the view the teacher education is a complete set of learning,
which trains him to work effectively at various levels of schools. It comprises of both
formal and informal training, considered necessary for entering into the profession of
teaching.
In many countries, the teacher education is conducted at higher education level.
What is to be taught, what and learnt, is under debate in many countries. This is very
important as, it includes the type and content of knowledge to be passed on students, who
will later on make a contribution to the society and the country. Thus the curriculum
could be divided into knowledge & skills to be taught, to the teachers.
34

51. 2.6.2 Teacher Training and Professional Development
The teacher training and professional development includes the following;
1 Maintaining of educational competency.
2 To further improve pedagogical skills and professional knowledge.
3 To develop flexibility in teaching and judgment.
4 To includes personal and inter-personal qualities.
5 To encourages self-awareness and responsibilities.
Teachers training organizations should be able to provide knowledge, skills and
values of society. These elements of training, if correctly provided, can help in
modifying the behavior and attitudes of teachers after completion of training.
2.6.3 Professional Development and Teacher Education
Professional development of teachers has to be linked to all aspects of education.
In order to improve teacher education, a global effort has to be made, by involving
training agencies and organizations in the world, the countries and other institutions to
ensure that proper education is provided to the teachers at the level of university, so as to
enable them to work as good teachers.
The education for teachers must include the following;
1 Methodology
2 Pedagogy
3 Practice
4 Curriculum
It has been observed, that teacher education and variables in the school
environment are of real consequence, than in more developed countries. A study
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52. conducted in four developing countries has indicated that the quality of teacher was one
of the major element between good and poor school (Carron and Châu, 1996).
In addition to education of teachers, it is also of significance that they receive
training during their service, so as to keep them abreast with new knowledge in their
subjects and to get their support for improving teaching methods. Teaching is a
profession spared over the entire life of a teacher, as learning never ends and additions
are made to it regularly as knowledge expands. In case the teacher stops learning, his
knowledge will become stale and outdated, as they will be repeating what they learn year
after year. Those teaching must be provided with the help to explore and find new
methods to experiment, as well as find new approaches in this direction. To do these, the
elements of the in-service training and subsequent continuous development is aimed at
helping teachers, in finding new teaching methods is very important. The training
provided during service is required to be of high quality. It should not be a routine
activity, as in that way it will loose its significances. Quality training during service has
to be arranged with the help of universities and other relevant organizations, dealing with
extended education. A teacher who continues to maintain high professional standards
will be able to provide quality education, with better learning. Achieving high
educational standards is a continuous process, which is initiated with education before
service, initial learning, and continuing to learn. (Department of Education website at
http://www.doe.mass.edu/
2.7 PROVISION OF TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN PAKISTAN
Education has a checkered history in Pakistan. Soon after the independence, the
importance of education was recognized. Fazal-Ur-Rehman, the first Education Minister
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53. on the behalf of the father of the nation, Quaid-i-Azam, convened the First Educational
Conference, immediately after independence. He read the message from the Quaid, which
provided guidelines for the educational system of the new country (Government of
Pakistan, 1947).
Teacher Education is imparted through pre-service and in-service teacher training
institutions, but it is predominantly pre-service in the form of Certificate, Diploma Or
Degree program. In-service training programs are conducted by specified units of the
provincial governments, where the content remains limited to the teaching of prescribed
school curricula or development of administrative skills or orientation to the government
initiatives, such as formation of school management councils etc. These institutions are
known as Provincial Institutes of Teacher Education (PITE) and in Punjab, there is the
Directorate of Staff Development. At the federal level in-service teacher education is
conducted by the National Institute of Science and Technology Education (NISTE).
Both the students and teachers are faced with major problems in quality of
learning and competency, which is at its lowest in Pakistan. One of the many reasons for
this one factor is low level of qualifications, expected from a teacher at primary level, the
other being the quality of teacher training program, which is dependent on the instructors.
Teaching practices and absence of adequate monitoring is another problem. The
available Data indicates that out of 100 students, who join school at the initial level in
public sector schools, only 8 complete their higher secondary school. It is worth
mentioning that present 200 teachers training organizations are functioning in the
country.
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54. The public sector training organizations are located throughout the country for
providing pre-service, in-service training for teachers at the lowest level. In addition to
these there are around 300 teachers resources centres, established under education sector
reform programme, through out the country. This shows an extensive coverage, but
suffers from poor standards and quality. It is essentially required that specialized persons
both from Government Sector and NGOs’ be selected and located in the various centers.
The Pakistan teacher education and professional development programme of the
Government of Pakistan is at present performing this function.
2.8 TYPES OF TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAMMES
In Pakistan, there are three types of Teacher Training Institutions.
2.8.1 Formal Institutes for Teacher Training
In these training institutes, the teachers were trained before joining the service. At
the time of independence these types of teacher training institutes were 22 in numbers.
For the admission, the prescribed qualification was certificate in Elementary and
Matriculation. After the completion of training, the trainees were awarded certificates J.V
(junior vernacular) and S.V (senior vernacular). Those having J.V certificates were
appointed in the primary schools as S.V. were selected for the elementary schools as
elementary teachers. For high school students were taught by the teachers from normal
and elementary colleges (Hameedi, 1962).
2.8.2 Non-Formal Institutes for Teacher Training
Allama Iqbal Open University was established at federal level in 1974, which
started, its programs for teacher training which included PTC, CT, B,Ed, M.Ed, M.A.
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55. education, M.Phil and PhD education (AIOU, 1997).
2.8.3 Field Based Institutes for Teacher Training
This program is for the northern areas. In northern areas, there are different
groups of people based on their sectarian orientation. The Imaeli school of thought
spends lot of money to provide educational facilities, to people of their sect and open one
room school in the area. This may be the room of a masjid or jammat khana. These
schools are also known as Diamond jubilee schools. Curriculum of these schools was as
in the other public schools but the administration was in the hands of the Ismaeli school
of thought. (Farooq’1993)
In 1983, 80% teachers in these schools were untrained. At that time there was a
government teacher training institute in Gilgit and now there is a Government College of
Education for primary teachers. It was not enough to meet the requirement of the people
living in difficult mountain areas. In these circumstances, the Central Board of Education
with cooperation of the Government of Pakistan started a mobile field training program.
There was separate schedule of practical teaching because pre-service and in-service
teachers were trained during the course (Shaheen, Suhail and Farooq).
2.9 TEACHER TRAINING IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE (1947)
From the 1947 to 1978, there were normal schools for the training of the primary
teachers in Pakistan. After 1978, all teacher training schools were changed into colleges
for elementary teachers. Following were the teacher training programmes in Pakistan.
Names of the program Qualification for admission
1- J.V (junior vernacular) Middle (8th)
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56. 2- S.V (senior vernacular) Matric
3- C.T (certificate in teaching) F.A/Fsc
4- O.T (oriental teaching). F. A
5- B.T (Bachelor in teaching) B.A
In 1956, the name of the J.V was changed into Primary Teaching Certificate
(PTC) and the pre-requisite qualification was modified from middle to Matric (Govt. of
Pakistan, 1956).
Since independence of Pakistan, at secondary level teacher training (14+1) model
was applied for the teacher training in the elementary colleges of Pakistan In 1957, the
name of (B.T) was changed as Bachelor of education (B.Ed).
In 1972-1980’s education policy, it was realized that for teaching of science, there
should be a program for the training of science teacher. In the light of this policy, a new
program for science teacher was introduced in universities and elementary colleges
throughout Pakistan.
Provincial Education Departments and Education Extension Centers are providing
training in education in their institutes. Teacher education programmes are offered in
Government Colleges of Elementary Teachers, Government Colleges of Education,
Institutes of Education and Research and Departments of Education in universities.
Teachers for grades 1 to 8 are required to complete minimum of one-year teacher-training
program; Admission to these programmes is based on completion of grade 10, at the
minimum. Teachers for grades 9 and 10 are required to complete one-year teacher-
training programme for which the admission requirement is 2-year Bachelor of
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57. Arts/Science; the credential awarded is a Bachelor of Education. Teachers for grades 14
and 16 are required to complete three-year teacher-training programme leading to a
Bachelor of Education Degree.
2.10 LEVELS OF TEACHER TRAINING IN PAKISTAN
Teacher education is conducted in institutions under the control of the Provincial
Education Departments and Education Extension Centers. Teacher education
programmes are offered in Government Colleges of Elementary Teachers, Government
Colleges of Education, Institutes of Education and Research and Departments of
Education in universities. Various types of pre-service teacher education programs are
offered to prepare teachers for different levels of education.
2.10.1 Primary Teaching Certificate / (Diploma in Education, 10+3)
It is an approved scheme of the Ministry of Education. Diploma in Education was
started with an objective to prepare more skillful teachers for elementary schools. The
duration of the programme is three years.
2.10.2 Certificate in Teaching (CT)
CT programme aims to prepare teachers for teaching at middle school level. It
includes the courses related to philosophy and knowledge of middle school age and
methodology of teaching different subjects.
2.10.3 Bachelor of Education (B.Ed)
Bachelor of education programme aims to prepare teachers for teaching at
secondary school level. It includes the courses related to philosophies and knowledge of
high school age and methodology of teaching different subjects at this level.
2.10.4 Master of Education (M.Ed)
M.Ed education programme aims to prepare teachers for teaching at secondary
41

58. school level. It includes the courses related to philosophies and knowledge of high school
age and methodology of teaching different subjects at this level. It also aims to prepare
leaders and administrators for schools.
2.10.5 Master of Education (M.A)
Master in education programme aims to prepare teachers for teaching at college
and university level. It includes the courses related to philosophies and knowledge of
higher level and methodology of teaching education subject at this level. Master of
education is an academic and professional degree.
Levels duration and qualification for admission
year and duration (entry Level/grades for
Title of program
ACAD + Programme) which prepared
Primary Teacher Certificate (PTC) 10+1 1-5
Certificate of Teaching (CT) 12+1 6-8
B.Ed 14+1 Secondary
B.S.Ed 12+3 Secondary
B.Sc (Hons) in Edu. Studies 12+4 Secondary
M.A Education 14+2 Secondary and HS
M.Ed B.Ed+1 Secondary and HS
M. Phil Master in Edu+ 2 Year Higher TT
The first two programs have been discontinued from 2002 onwards in Punjab, the
biggest province of Pakistan with a little more than 60% population of the country and
the minimum requisite qualification for a primary school teacher has been raised to a
bachelor degree.
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59. Training program and qualification for admission at present
Name of Programme Qualification Acad. Year
B.Ed(Bachelor of Education) B.A/BSc One Year
B.Sc(Bachelor of Science) FSc Three Year
M.A(Secondary) B.A/BSc Two Year
M.A(Islamic Education) B.A/BSc Two Year
M.Ed(Secondary) B.Ed. One Year
M.S.Ed(Science) BS.Ed. One Year
M.A(Master of Technology) B.A/BSc Two Year
M.A(Master of Business Education) B.A/BSc/B.Com Two Year
(Institute of Education & Research, 2002, 2004, College of Education, 2001-2002)
2.11 TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
2.11.1 Normal Schools
Normal schools now also called teachers college or teacher-training
college institution for the training of teachers. One of the first schools so named, the
École Normale Supérieure (Normal Superior School), was established in Paris in 1794.
Based on various German examples, the school was intended to serve as a model for
other teacher-training schools. Later, it was affiliated with the University of Paris.
Normal schools were established chiefly on normal pattern of education in non-
western or developing nations in South Asia. During post independence period in India,
this type of schools were established by the British Government. At the time of
independence of Pakistan, there were 22 teacher training schools. Since then, there has
been a remarkable improvement in teacher education and in scientific and technological
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60. education and researches, the system of normal schools for teachers remain since 1978.
The new Constitution adopted by Pakistan in 1973 did not change the overall
administrative policy of the country.
2.11.2 Elementary Colleges
At present, there are elementary colleges and high schools which offer teacher
training programmes for PTC (Primary Teaching Certificate) and CT (Certificate in
Teaching) to teachers. Since 1947 to 1978, there were normal schools for the training of
teachers at primary level in Pakistan. However, after 1978 all the teacher training schools
(normal schools) were changed to colleges for elementary teachers.
2.11.3 Colleges of Education
Institutions which prepare secondary school teachers are known as Colleges of
Education. These are established solely for the purpose of training teachers. These are
usually for elementary teachers and emphasize pedagogical preparation more than subject
area preparation. In most cases these offer 2- to 4-years programs. Bachelor's Degree
programs tend to entail greater subject matter preparation and relatively less pedagogical
preparation. These are generally 3- or 4-year programs, with the teacher preparation
portion lasting one to two years. At present, there are twelve Colleges of Education.
2.11.4 Institutes of Education and Research (I.E.R)
The following objectives were set forth for the Institutes:
1 To provide and promote facilities for training, study and research in education
44