Philosophy of Science

1. PHILOSOPHY
OF SCIENCE 2
INTRODUCTION II
cssmayo.com:
What Is On My Mind? (2011)
INTRODUKTION TIL VIDENSKABSTEORI > BEGREBER > KVALITATIV OG KVANTITATIV RESEARCH

2. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 2 INTRODUCTION II
INTRODUKTION TIL VIDENSKABSTEORI > BEGREBER > KVALITATIV OG KVANTITATIV RESEARCH
Me, You and Keywords: Perception, reality, relativity, theory
all the Things
Scope: research;
Introduction qualitative. Basic theory of research.
Note on Literature
International class: Danish class:
This lesson is generally(!) based based on Lisa This lesson is generally(!) based based on
Bartolotti (2010): An Introduction to the Carsten Rønn (2006): Almen Videnskabsteori
Philosophy of Science. Polity, UK. for professionsuddannelserne. Alinea, DK.
Author’s profile: www.lisabortolotti.com Se også: www.samfundsviden.dk under
Philosophy ressource: http://www.iep.utm.edu/ teorier og metoder > videnskabsteori

3. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 2 INTRODUCTION II
INTRODUKTION TIL VIDENSKABSTEORI > BEGREBER > KVALITATIV OG KVANTITATIV RESEARCH
Me, You and
all the Things Classic experimental
Psychology
Sensory Foundation of psychology as
Perception science (1880, Germany)
and the Self in
the Perception Classic, intuitive knowledge:
Perception is constructed by
the parts of every particular
sensory perceptor.
Examples
The new theories add Emotions: Perception of touch
representations of concepts Perception of pain
through the sensory stimuli. Hot and cold
There are relative values and
particular differences.

4. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 2 INTRODUCTION II
INTRODUKTION TIL VIDENSKABSTEORI > BEGREBER > KVALITATIV OG KVANTITATIV RESEARCH
Me, You and
all the Things Gestalt Psychology
Perception (1910, Germany)
Sensory
Perception Theories of isomorphism:
and the Self in relations between the
the Perception mapping of our brain’s
perception andand the
reality of the physical world.
Originally the theories
assumed passive reactions to
sensory stimuli and gestalts.
But it made way for ideas,
that human activity shapes
and constructs the world,
we’re not only consuming.

5. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 2 INTRODUCTION II
INTRODUKTION TIL VIDENSKABSTEORI > BEGREBER > KVALITATIV OG KVANTITATIV RESEARCH
Me, You and
all the Things
Sensory Sigmund Freud (1856‒1939), was ahead of his
Perception time and the classic experimental psychology.
and the Self in
the Perception Freud Thematisizes how subconscious*
motivation can change the way we percieve of
things. We are shaped by our past, our natural
(often repressed) instincts and our self‐image,
so we that the world we percieve is
systematically framed in accordance with the
way we want to “see ourselves.”
Prosumers and self representation
(*Freud himself didn’t approve of that concept)

6. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 2 INTRODUCTION II
INTRODUKTION TIL VIDENSKABSTEORI > BEGREBER > KVALITATIV OG KVANTITATIV RESEARCH
Me, You and
all the Things New Look Psychology
Foundation of perception as
Sensory depending on motivation and
Perception personality (1940, USA)
and the Self in
the Perception Evaluation of perception via
categories and narratives Jerome Bruner (born 1915)
Language and
social status play a part.
Our observations are placed
within a category/concept:
I see X as (non‐objective,
biased by expectations)

7. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 2 INTRODUCTION II
INTRODUKTION TIL VIDENSKABSTEORI > BEGREBER > KVALITATIV OG KVANTITATIV RESEARCH
Me, You and
all the Things Jerome Bruner’s theory of perception is to be
understood as a dynamic interaction between
the seen and the person who is seeing:
Sensory
Perception Category/concept is percieved as a first
and the Self in impression (judgement, categorized)
the Perception
Verificality: To see as. A construct of a
system of expectations. Verification starts
SEEING between what is seen and what can be
applied to new perceptions of the category
(recognition in forms).
Read‐iness: Knowledge of the world in
forms of language and concept.

8. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 2 INTRODUCTION II
INTRODUKTION TIL VIDENSKABSTEORI > BEGREBER > KVALITATIV OG KVANTITATIV RESEARCH
Me, You and
all the Things
Social Every person is unique. Every event is unique. We construct our world
Constructivism
Knowledge and perception is shaped by the particular relation the
particular individual is a part of.
The seen is not objective concepts and things.
In qualitative research we work with the concept of meaning and people’s
perceptions and preferences, of how people make meaning with things
(personal epistemology)
When we say that something is socially constructed, we are focusing on its
dependence on contingent variables of our social selves rather than any
inherent quality that it possesses in itself (from wikipedia)

9. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 2 INTRODUCTION II
INTRODUKTION TIL VIDENSKABSTEORI > BEGREBER > KVALITATIV OG KVANTITATIV RESEARCH
Me, You and all
the Things
Social
Constructivism
Social Science L–R:
Post modernism (Zygmunt Baumann, born 1925, Poland)
Post‐traditional society (Anthony Giddens, born 1938, UK)
Discourse theory (Michel Foucault, born 1926‒1984, France)
Micro‐ and macro sociological forces

10. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 2 INTRODUCTION II
INTRODUKTION TIL VIDENSKABSTEORI > BEGREBER > KVALITATIV OG KVANTITATIV RESEARCH
Me, You and
all the Things A pragmatic meta‐approach: What are the relational conditions
between persons, things, culture,
To Observe in The observer must precisely define actions etc. Relations are important,
a Complex the areas that are governing the not the isolated elements. It is not
World observations: about the dominant A, but about the
a) Field‐ and subject area relations between A, B and C, which
b) Focus points makes A dominant (for example).
The observer must precisely A network is often organized a
describe the fields of observations contradicting structure within a
(quantitative and qualitative) structure with conflicting concepts
and actions. You must organize,
What is the educational context in conceptually describe and analyze
which you are working? these conflicts. Keep the questions
and the scope relatively open.
Focus on communication between Demarcations can only be made by
relations. falsification.

11. STUDY SHEET
RESEARCH THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
PROCESSES 2
INTRODUKTION TIL VIDENSKABSTEORI > BEGREBER > KVALITATIV OG KVANTITATIV RESEARCH

12. STUDY SHEET
RESEARCH PROCESS 2 THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
The Research This is the second part of two lessons. During these lessons we will study
Process and work practically with two main types of research processes:
Introduction
the quantitative research process and the qualitative research process
Note on Literature:
This lesson is based on Klaus Bruhn Jensen’s (editor) A Handboook of Media and
Communication Research: “The Qualitative Research Process” by Klaus Bruhn Jensen
(chapter 14, p. 235–253). Routledge 2005.
On Google Books: http://books.google.com/books?id=Bt6kuYR‐mBsC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

13. STUDY SHEET
RESEARCH PROCESS 2 THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
Research 1. The hypothesis … is a proposition to be tested. Hypotheses makes prognostications about the links
between variables. They propose, that under a set of conditions, if an independent variable
Basic Theory is manipulated in a certain way, or is assumed to have a certain strength, it may be
expected to exert a measurable impact on a designated dependent variable. Then it can be
tested, if this hypothesis can be proved or disproved. (Jensen 2005: 212).
2. The Variable … is gender, age, nationality etc.
… is the empirical representation of a …
Before the research
3. Independent Variables Concept and a… Construct (combination of concepts)
… can be manipulated by the A concept represents A combination of concepts used to
researcher. an abstract idea that define the characteristics of the
… means the way the research embodies the nature of individual users as grouped in
process is constructed to observable phenomena, concepts (in the example).
measure a response. or an interpretation of Heavy users may be described by such
why such phenomea concepts as sociability, tolerance for
4. Dependent Variables occur. strong stimulation, risk‐taking etc.
After the research
This is also what we call the
… is the measure of the Example: Individuals
constituent attributes, i.e. values or
outcome of the research are defined in terms of
categories into which variables can be
based on its construct and its their use of a media.
divided.
dependent variables, i.e. it is You define the notions
the information created by the of a “light user” and a
variables and the hypothesis. “heavy user” based on
media types, levels of
defined usage etc.

14. STUDY SHEET
RESEARCH PROCESS 2 THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
Quantitative In this lesson we will focus on basic, primary research
Research
Introduction Remember: qualitative and quantitative approaches
to the Basic can both be primary and secondary:
Concepts
PR I M A RY DATA S ECO N DA RY DATA
Qualitative • Observations • Documents
Data • Interviews (open questions) • Notes (from secondary source)
• Movie recording (actively) • Letters
• Think aloud test, etc. • Sound and movie recordings
(others material)
• Artifacts
Quantitative • Closed questions • Articles and pictures, etc.
Data • Surveys
• Clearly defined objectives
in observations, etc. • Statistics
• Registrations, etc.
Artifacts, letters etc. can become quantifiable data for some purposes,
and statistics can become proof of qualitative arguments

15. STUDY SHEET
RESEARCH PROCESS 2 THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
Qualitative The Basic Concepts in Qualitative Research
Research The qualitative approach to conducting research has for many years been the
Introduction ‘soft’ area of science.
to the Basic
Concepts The qualitative aspects deals also with observable facts, but not always the
same ‘hard’, measurable emperical facts that is the focus for quantitative
research.
Qualitative reseach investigates the concept of meaning, its embedding
in and orientation of social actions. It is the connection between meaning and
action—for example as performed inside media contexts—that tells us how we
are, how we think and act in a realistic context.
Qualitative research also perform sampling. Samplings of cultural settings,
communities, periods and acivities, to mention a few.

16. STUDY SHEET
RESEARCH PROCESS 2 THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
Qualitative The Basic Concepts in Qualitative Research (continued)
Research What distinguishes qualitative research from quantitative reearch is also
Introduction that quantative research projects has many fixed variables and concepts,
to the Basic often segregated between action as when it happened and how it can be
Concepts measured as effects in scores—after the action.
Qualitative research has as its ambition to interpret in action.
Let’s have a look at how to design qualitative analysis methods (next slides).

17. STUDY SHEET
RESEARCH PROCESS 2 THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
Qualitative Designing Qualitative Research: Interviewing
Research To design an emperical study is to identify and delimit a portion of reality
Methods (Jensen 2005: 237). Ask into why instead of what. Relations.
of Qualitative
Research Respondent interviews: The informant is percieved as a representative of
a social and cultural category (concepts and constructs). This can be a key
to the decoding of the user‐pattern in relation to elaborating on the
quantitative variables of user behaviour (think aloud test for example).
Group interviews: In order to explore what goes on in a more or less
naturalistic social setting, a group can form the basis for discussions, that
explore aspects of a product credibity, of lifestyles, advertisements etc.
Focus groups: Gathering a specific type of users, this kind of interviewing
is often based on the strategy of getting to know attitudes toward a product
or political and ethical issues. Again, it’s why instead of what.

18. STUDY SHEET
RESEARCH PROCESS 2 THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
Qualitative Designing Qualitative Research: Observing and Coding
Research
Methods Thick description: The thick description means that when you observe a
of Qualitative situation, you use means of gathering data that accounts for everyhing.
Research You could use movie‐recording devices and then later describe artefacts as
well as actions. This can lead to a very detailed describtion of environment
and the interpretation of the actions. You can analyse actions and speech‐
acts (rhetorics).
Coding: The coding means fixating and capturing certain qualities of the
units, i.e. person/persons, texts, events (or other unit), you are observing.
For example can the thematic coding (concept variable) function as an
important objective to make way for interpretations and for applying
abstract theory of culture and perception.

19. STUDY SHEET
RESEARCH PROCESS 2 THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
Qualitative USABILITY TESTS—design a qualitative survey of a user experience
Research
(and Quantitative) TESTING
in Usability 1. Make a thinking‐aloud‐test of a website or a mobile application:
Tests 2. Make a thematic coding in relation to the attitudes toward the
visual design, the ability to read the text and the pictures, etc.
3. What is your hypothesis as a designer?
4. Record, write down, observe everything!
5. Interview two or three people (in class)
Present according to the report‐template on the next slide →

20. STUDY SHEET
RESEARCH PROCESS 2 THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
Qualitative USABILITY TESTS—design a qualitative survey of a user experience
Research
(and Quantitative) R E P O R T I N G (validating your results)
in Usability
Source: Munk & Mørk: Brugervenlighed på internettet. Samfundslitteratur 2002.
1. Summary of the main results with conclusion.
Tests 2. Introduction
(hypothesis, problems and research questions, thematic coding?).
3. Describtion of method/methods?
A mix of quantative and qualitative approaches with a focus?
4. Observations and results. (Pie chart templates may be used in other
contexts, but in this case it’s fine just to present your basic findings)
5. Conclusion (short, recap on 1)
6. Recommendations for improvements.