Research Methods in Education 6th Edition

1. OBSERVATION
© LOUIS COHEN, LAWRENCE
MANION & KEITH MORRISON

2. STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER
• Structured observation
• The need to practise structured observation
• Analyzing data from structured observations
• Critical incidents
• Naturalistic and participant observation
• Data analysis for less structured observations
• Natural and artificial settings for observation
• The use of technology in recording observations
• Timing and causality with observational data
• Ethical considerations
• Some cautionary comments

3. OBSERVATIONS ARE . . .
• Looking (often systematically)
• Noting systematically people, events,
behaviours, settings, artifacts, routines etc.
• Concerned with live data and situations
• Selective and theory-driven (there are no
neutral observations)
• On a continuum from highly structured to
semi-structured to unstructured

4. ROLE OF OBSERVER
• Complete participant
• Participant as observer
• Observer as participant
• Complete observer
Complete participation to complete detachment

5. CONTINUA OF OBSERVATION
Prespecified/pre-ordinate Responsive
Quantitative Qualitative
Time bound Open-ended
Short-term Long-term
Structured/systematic Unstructured/ad hoc
Participant observation Non-participant observation
Highly focused/early focused Unfocused/late focused
Descriptive Explanatory
Overt Covert
Laboratory/contrived settings Natural settings
Direct observation Indirect observation
Observing others Observing self and others

6. OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER . . .
• The focus of the observation(s)
• Why they are observing
• The research questions that the observational
data will address
• What to include and exclude
• How to record the observations
• Where to observe
• What to observe
• Whom to observe
• How many people, events, settings to observe

7. OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER . . .
• How systematic, structured, descriptive to be
• The ‘unit’ of observation (e.g. a teacher, a
student; a pair, a small group, a class)
• What resources are necessary
• Problems that might be encountered
• Additional information that may be needed to
complement the observational record
• The processing and analysis of data

8. OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER . . .
• How the observation may be affected by the
sex, sexuality, ethnicity, class, appearance,
age, language, personality, temperament,
attitude, interpersonal behaviour, familiarity
with the situation, involvement and concern of
the observer
• Whether the observer will stand or sit, or
move around a setting
• Where to stand or sit

9. STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
• Systematic
• Enables the researcher to generate numerical
data from the observations
• Non-participant observer
• Data entered onto a structured observation
schedule

10. STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
• Observation categories are discrete: no
overlap
• Timed
• The researcher will need to practise
completing the schedule consistently and at
speed
• The researcher will need to decide what
entry/code/symbol is to be made in the
appropriate category

11. Student to Student / / / /
Student to Students
/ /
Student to Teacher
/ / /
Students to Teacher
/ / / / /
Teacher to Student
Teacher to Students
Student to Self
Task in hand

Previous task
 
Future task
Non-task
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
  
   

12. EVENT SAMPLING
(Each occurrence)
Boss shouts at employee / / / / /
Employee shouts at boss / / /
Employee’s colleague shouts at boss / /
Boss shouts at employee’s colleague / /

13. TWO DIFFERENT STORIES
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Boss shouts at employee / / / / /
Employee shouts at boss / / /
Employee’s friend shouts at boss / /
Boss shouts at employee’s friend / /
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Boss shouts at employee / / / / /
Employee shouts at boss / / /
Employee’s friend shouts at boss / /
Boss shouts at employee’s friend / /

14. INSTANTANEOUS SAMPLING
(On the instant of time)
INTERVAL RECORDING
(What has happened in the previous
time period)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Boss smiles at employee / / / /
Employee smiles at boss / / / /
Boss smiles at employee’s friend / / / /
Employee’s friend smiles at boss / / / /

15. 1 2 3 4 5
Warm _ _ _ _ _ Aloof
Stimulating _ _ _ _ _ Dull
Businesslike _ _ _ _ _ Slipshod
RATING SCALES
CRITICAL INCIDENTS

16. • Entering data consistently and at speed
• Catching all the data
• Where to observe/stand/sit
THE NEED TO PRACTISE
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION

17. • Frequencies
• Patterns
• Unusual data
• Frequently occurring
• Aggregated data
• Quantitized and qualitized
ANALYZING DATA FROM
STRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS

18. • Naturalistic research often uses participant
observation
• Observations are recorded in field notes and
audio-visually
NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT
OBSERVATION

19. FIELD NOTES (1)
Types:
• Jottings; transcriptions; reports; pen
portraits;reconstructions of conversations;
descriptions of physical settings; reports of
events and behaviour; descriptions of
researcher’s activities; ongoing notes; logs
and diaries; notes on pre determined themes;‑
chronologs; discussion data

20. FIELD NOTES (2)
Timing and focus:
• Notes made in situ;
• Expanded notes that are made as soon as
possible after the initial observations;
• Journal notes to record issues, ideas,
difficulties etc. that arise during the
fieldwork;
• A developing, tentative running record of
ongoing analysis and interpretation.

21. FIELD NOTES (3)
Description
• Space: the physical setting;
• Actors: the people in the situation;
• Activities: the sets of related acts that are taking
place.
• Objects: the artifacts and physical things that are
there;
• Acts: the specific actions that participants are doing;
• Events: the sets of activities that are taking place;
• Time: the sequence of acts, activities and events;
• Goals: what people are trying to achieve;
• Feelings: what people feel and how they express
this.

22. FIELD NOTES (4)
Reflection:
• Reflections on the descriptions and analyses
that have been done;
• Reflections on the methods used in the
observations and data collection and analysis;
• Ethical issues, tensions, problems and
dilemmas;
• The reactions of the observer to what has been
observed and recorded – attitude, emotion,
analysis etc.;
• Points of clarification that have been and/or
need to be made;
• Possible lines of further inquiry.

23. DATA ANALYSIS FROM FIELD NOTES
Qualitative data analysis:
• Coding, classifying, categorizing
• Nodes and connection
• Summarizing
• Narrative accounts
• Constant comparison
• Grounded theory
• Theoretical saturation
• Thematic analysis
• Patterning
• Quantitizing (e.g. frequencies)

24. USING TECHNOLOGY IN RECORDING
OBSERVATIONS
Audio-visual recording
• Problems of reactivity
• Fixed or moving camera
• Operator present with camera/camera; no
operator present
• How many cameras?
• Location of camera(s)
• Close focus or panorama?

25. TIMING AND CAUSALITY WITH
OBSERVATIONAL DATA
• When to observe effects of an intervention?
• How many time points for observation?
• How frequent are the observations?
• The more accurately we wish to know the causal
sequences, the more frequently and closer together
must be the observational data collection points.
• The more complex is the phenomenon under
investigation, the more time points for observational
data collection may be necessary in order to
understand the causation.
• Ethnography may be more useful than numerical
studies in identifying causality.

26. ETHICS
• Informed consent
• Covert or overt
• Disturbing the natural setting
• Deception and pretence
• Impression management
• Confidentiality/anonymity/privacy/non-
traceability
• Protection of individuals
• Loyalties (and to whom)
• Ignoring dubious acts (e.g. criminal acts)

27. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
• Selective attention of the observer
• Reactivity
• Attention deficit of observer
• Validity of constructs
• Selective data entry
• Selective memory for write-ups of observations
• Interpersonal matters and counter-transference
• Expectancy effects
• Decisions on how to record
• Number of observers
• The problem of inference

28. PLANNING OBSERVATIONS
• When, where, how and what to observe
• How much structure is necessary in the
observation (structured to unstructured)
• The duration of the observation period
• The timing of the observation period
• The context of the observation
• The opportunity to observe
• Merging subjective and objective observation
• The value of covert participant observation in
order to reduce reactivity

29. PLANNING OBSERVATIONS
• Threats to reliability and validity
• Operationalizing the observation so that what
counts as evidence is consistent,
unambiguous and valid
• Appropriate kind of structured observation and
recording
• Ethical issues
• Whether deception is justified
• Which role(s) to adopt on the continuum of
complete participant to complete observer