2. The Mexican American Civil
Rights Movement

3. The Chicano Movement

4. The Chicano Movement

5. El Movimiento

6. The Other Struggle For Equal Schools:
Mexican Americans During the Civil Rights
Movement

7. The Other Struggle For Equal Schools:
Mexican Americans During the Civil Rights
Movement
Rubén Donato
Presentation By
Ellison Williams
Melissa Rodriguez
Amanda Tanti
Vincent Narcia
David Aponte

8. The Evolution of the Mexican
American Community

9. The Evolution of the Mexican
American Community
Mexican-American War (1846-1848)
‣ Mexico lost the war and half of its territory
‣ Approx. 6000 Mexicans had to move or become U.S. citizens

10. The Evolution of the Mexican
American Community
Mexican-American War (1846-1848)
‣ Mexico lost the war and half of its territory
‣ Approx. 6000 Mexicans had to move or become U.S. citizens
California
‣ Mexico lost half its territory
‣ Approx. 6000 Mexicans had to move or become U.S. citizens

11. The Evolution of the Mexican
American Community
Mexican-American War (1846-1848)
‣ Mexico lost the war and half of its territory
‣ Approx. 6000 Mexicans had to move or become U.S. citizens
California
‣ Mexico lost half its territory
‣ Approx. 6000 Mexicans had to move or become U.S. citizens
GOLD!
‣ 1850 brought an influx of white settlers and made Mexicans a minority
group. Gold depleted miners turned to farming and squatting.
‣ Encroached onto properties with rent and good faith payments.

12. The Evolution of the Mexican
American Community

13. The Evolution of the Mexican
American Community
‣ Settlers started to acquire positions in government and challenge land
ownership of Mexican Americans/Californios

14. The Evolution of the Mexican
American Community
‣ Settlers started to acquire positions in government and challenge land
ownership of Mexican Americans/Californios
Land Act of 1851
‣ Called for land titles, which Mexicans did not have.
‣ Mexicans/Californios could not afford legal fees to fight for land.
‣ When legal matters would not take their land, armed squatters or lynchers
would force them off their property.

15. The Evolution of the Mexican
American Community
‣ Settlers started to acquire positions in government and challenge land
ownership of Mexican Americans/Californios
Land Act of 1851
‣ Called for land titles, which Mexicans did not have.
‣ Mexicans/Californios could not afford legal fees to fight for land.
‣ When legal matters would not take their land, armed squatters or lynchers
would force them off their property.
White settlers thought that the amount of land that Mexicans owned was
outrageous.
‣ It was impossible for the Mexicans to defend their property.

16. Northward Tide

17. Northward Tide
Immigrating Mexicans made up labor force.
‣ Even former middle class was forced to become unskilled or
semiskilled laborers.
‣ Caused tensions with Americans due to employers hiring
Mexicans for cheap labor.

18. Northward Tide
Immigrating Mexicans made up labor force.
‣ Even former middle class was forced to become unskilled or
semiskilled laborers.
‣ Caused tensions with Americans due to employers hiring
Mexicans for cheap labor.
Bracero Program
‣ US/Mexico deal in 1942 for temporary contracted labor.
‣ It ended up lasting for over 20 years.
‣ 1946-1960, an average of 278, 800 Mexican Bracero were
brought in each year

19. Brownfield, California

20. Brownfield, California
Tried to keep Mexican laborers out to
maintain higher wages for white laborers.

21. Brownfield, California
Tried to keep Mexican laborers out to
maintain higher wages for white laborers.
However, Mexican laborers became
necessary for the town’s economic survival.

22. Brownfield, California
Tried to keep Mexican laborers out to
maintain higher wages for white laborers.
However, Mexican laborers became
necessary for the town’s economic survival.
Mexican enrollment in high schools rose.

23. Consolidation

24. Consolidation
Restructured loosely constructed school systems into
efficient and unified districts.

25. Consolidation
Restructured loosely constructed school systems into
efficient and unified districts.
“The idea behind the consolidation movement
maintained that larger school districts would generate
higher teacher salaries, bestow status on educators,
yield administrative efficiency, and generate a tax base
where minimum educational standards were met.”

26. Consolidation

27. Consolidation
Mexican American students caused local papers to point out
problems
‣ Poverty
‣ Academic failure
‣ Inability to speak English
‣ Isolation from White peers

28. Consolidation
Mexican American students caused local papers to point out
problems
‣ Poverty
‣ Academic failure
‣ Inability to speak English
‣ Isolation from White peers
Brownfield school officials were not giving much attention to the
problems of Mexican American students.

29. “Schooling in the Pre-Brown Era”

30. “Schooling in the Pre-Brown Era”
When Progressive Education (1890s-1930s) came into
play, policymakers forgot about issues of race in
schools.

31. “Schooling in the Pre-Brown Era”
When Progressive Education (1890s-1930s) came into
play, policymakers forgot about issues of race in
schools.
Progressivism evolved into an era of bureaucratization,
tracking testing, and vocational education.

32. “Schooling in the Pre-Brown Era”
When Progressive Education (1890s-1930s) came into
play, policymakers forgot about issues of race in
schools.
Progressivism evolved into an era of bureaucratization,
tracking testing, and vocational education.
Schools sought to Americanize immigrants.

33. Segregation

34. Segregation
Schools assimilated 35 million immigrants, but
“failed to integrate a significant portion of the U.S.
Population.”

35. Segregation
Schools assimilated 35 million immigrants, but
“failed to integrate a significant portion of the U.S.
Population.”
In 1930, 85% of Mexican Americans attended
segregated schools.

36. Segregation
Schools assimilated 35 million immigrants, but
“failed to integrate a significant portion of the U.S.
Population.”
In 1930, 85% of Mexican Americans attended
segregated schools.
Mexican Americans were segregated into separate
classrooms and schools with
‣ Inferior Buildings and Equipment
‣ Poorly paid teachers

37. Segregation

38. Segregation
School boards came up with strategies to avoid
segregation laws.
‣ They classified Mexican Americans as Whites to
legally segregate them.
‣ Texas schools claimed that it would benefit
Mexican American students.

39. Segregation
School boards came up with strategies to avoid
segregation laws.
‣ They classified Mexican Americans as Whites to
legally segregate them.
‣ Texas schools claimed that it would benefit
Mexican American students.
Parents threatened these school boards.

40. Milo Hogan

41. Milo Hogan
Hogan (a scholar of education) claimed that segregation would
“hinder the academic progress of white children.”

42. Milo Hogan
Hogan (a scholar of education) claimed that segregation would
“hinder the academic progress of white children.”
Hogan claimed that Mexican Americans would be happier with
their own kind.
‣ Claimed that they were not as “independent” as their
White counterparts.
‣ Claimed that “Mexican contact with bright white children
[would have] damaging effects on Mexican children’s
psychological well-being. ”

43. Milo Hogan
Hogan (a scholar of education) claimed that segregation would
“hinder the academic progress of white children.”
Hogan claimed that Mexican Americans would be happier with
their own kind.
‣ Claimed that they were not as “independent” as their
White counterparts.
‣ Claimed that “Mexican contact with bright white children
[would have] damaging effects on Mexican children’s
psychological well-being. ”
Hogan’s ideas were widely accepted by educators in California.

46. Discrimination

47. Discrimination
Charles Carpenter gave Mexican Americans terrible labels:
‣ “lawless,” “dirty,” “lazy,” and “violent.”
‣ Claimed that they had different “morals, standards, and
hygiene.”

48. Discrimination
Charles Carpenter gave Mexican Americans terrible labels:
‣ “lawless,” “dirty,” “lazy,” and “violent.”
‣ Claimed that they had different “morals, standards, and
hygiene.”
Mexican Americans were stigmatized as drunkards who were
inclined to fight.

49. Discrimination
Charles Carpenter gave Mexican Americans terrible labels:
‣ “lawless,” “dirty,” “lazy,” and “violent.”
‣ Claimed that they had different “morals, standards, and
hygiene.”
Mexican Americans were stigmatized as drunkards who were
inclined to fight.
Were considered to be workers and domestic servants.

50. Discrimination
Charles Carpenter gave Mexican Americans terrible labels:
‣ “lawless,” “dirty,” “lazy,” and “violent.”
‣ Claimed that they had different “morals, standards, and
hygiene.”
Mexican Americans were stigmatized as drunkards who were
inclined to fight.
Were considered to be workers and domestic servants.
Critics wanted Mexican Americans “Americanized” before
they integrated.

51. Vocational Education

52. Vocational Education
Mexican Americans were placed in vocational schools
because they were considered to have a “natural capacity
for the manual arts.”

53. Vocational Education
Mexican Americans were placed in vocational schools
because they were considered to have a “natural capacity
for the manual arts.”
They were considered an economic threat whose only
solution was manual labor.

54. Vocational Education
Mexican Americans were placed in vocational schools
because they were considered to have a “natural capacity
for the manual arts.”
They were considered an economic threat whose only
solution was manual labor.
They were placed in low level, vocational tracks.

55. Vocational Education
Mexican Americans were placed in vocational schools
because they were considered to have a “natural capacity
for the manual arts.”
They were considered an economic threat whose only
solution was manual labor.
They were placed in low level, vocational tracks.
Emphasis placed on “hard work,” not academic
preparation
‣ “Manual Training,” “Domestic Science,” “Hygiene,”
“Home-Making Skills”

56. IQ Testing

57. IQ Testing
Mexican Americans were considered low scorers
compared to Blacks and Whites.

58. IQ Testing
Mexican Americans were considered low scorers
compared to Blacks and Whites.
Whites were considered to be the highest achievers.
‣ The average Mexican American child was
considered to be 14 months behind the regular
White child in public schools.

59. Sleeping Giant: “Emergence of
Grassroots Activism”

60. Sleeping Giant: “Emergence of
Grassroots Activism”
Mexican Americans were almost invisible when it came to civil rights and
education issues.

61. Sleeping Giant: “Emergence of
Grassroots Activism”
Mexican Americans were almost invisible when it came to civil rights and
education issues.
1963 - The Mexican American Education Committee was formed.
‣ Called for education in Spanish language and the history of Mexico.
‣ Parents pushed for unbiased testing instruments.
‣ Lyndon B Johnson started to focus on the Mexican American.

62. Sleeping Giant: “Emergence of
Grassroots Activism”
Mexican Americans were almost invisible when it came to civil rights and
education issues.
1963 - The Mexican American Education Committee was formed.
‣ Called for education in Spanish language and the history of Mexico.
‣ Parents pushed for unbiased testing instruments.
‣ Lyndon B Johnson started to focus on the Mexican American.
Office of Education created a Mexican American Affairs Unit to
investigate how Mexican American students were doing in public schools.

63. Findings

64. Findings
Texas California
‣ 50% dropped out by 10th and 11th
grade.
‣ 80% fell 2 grades behind white
‣ Made up 14% of school enrollment, students.
but represented 40% of enrollments in
“mentally handicapped” classes. ‣ Most left school in junior high. 89%
were not completing high school.
‣ Made up less than 0.5% of University
of California campus.

65. Findings
Mexican American
White Students
Students
Years Completed 8.6 21.1
76%
Population in East L.A. (7% had no formal
schooling and 9% had only
one year of college.)
47.5-58.3% in Garfield and 2.6-3.1% in Monroe and
Dropout Rate Roosevelt High (East Palisades High (West
Side) Side)
‣ Parents and activists attributed these findings to negative
teacher attitudes towards Mexican American children.

66. Mobilization of Dissent

67. Mobilization of Dissent
1965 - Brownfield schools were not serving needs of Mexican
American students and they were ignoring the problem.

68. Mobilization of Dissent
1965 - Brownfield schools were not serving needs of Mexican
American students and they were ignoring the problem.
Social Discrimination
‣ Housing discrimination - above market rent for substandard
conditions or refusal to rent to Mexican families
‣ Mexican students automatically went to vocational programs
and white students went to college.
‣ Educators expected them to act a certain way because they were
Mexican.

69. Mexican American Communities
Start to Rumble

70. Mexican American Communities
Start to Rumble
Silence was common for Mexican American rights.

71. Mexican American Communities
Start to Rumble
Silence was common for Mexican American rights.
1968 - Mexican American parents formed the
Communidad Organizada Para Educacion (COPE)
‣ COPE sought reforms in education.
‣ They found out that Brownfield schools had received
Title 1 funding, but couldn’t show how it was being
used to help their children.

72. Mexican American Communities
Start to Rumble

73. Mexican American Communities
Start to Rumble
COPE and school officials obtained a half-million dollar
grant to set up bilingual-bicultural elementary school in
Brownfield. The small victory led to inclusion in decision
making process for schools.
Mexican Americans still lacked representation on school
boards and held almost no position of power. They saw
forming a cohesive ethnic group would help bring about
favorable changes.

74. Mobilization of Mexican
American Parents in Brownfield

75. Mobilization of Mexican
American Parents in Brownfield
In Southwest, scholars linked Mexican American struggle
w/ bilingual education and community control of schools
Rarely ever linked Mexican American education with year
round schooling

76. Mobilization of Mexican
American Parents in Brownfield
In Southwest, scholars linked Mexican American struggle
w/ bilingual education and community control of schools
Rarely ever linked Mexican American education with year
round schooling
Focused mainly on education for white middle class
students in urban and suburban areas.

77. Mobilization of Mexican
American Parents in Brownfield
In Southwest, scholars linked Mexican American struggle
w/ bilingual education and community control of schools
Rarely ever linked Mexican American education with year
round schooling
Focused mainly on education for white middle class
students in urban and suburban areas.
Few studies were done to focus on Mexican Americans.

78. The Evolution of Year-Round
Schools

79. The Evolution of Year-Round
Schools
Very controversial

80. The Evolution of Year-Round
Schools
Very controversial
In 1904-1915 in Buffton, Indiana the school system first experimented with the concept.
‣ However the idea of year round schooling usually was rejected because of
intense public criticism.

81. The Evolution of Year-Round
Schools
Very controversial
In 1904-1915 in Buffton, Indiana the school system first experimented with the concept.
‣ However the idea of year round schooling usually was rejected because of
intense public criticism.
Early 20th century
‣ Newark, New Jersey wanted to serve non-English speaking immigrant children
throughout the year.
‣ Omaha, Nebraska wanted to offer vocational training on a year-round basis.
‣ Buffton, Indiana wanted to institute curricular reforms.

82. National Resistance

83. National Resistance
Conflicted with athletes, extracurricular activities, summer camps, social
activities

84. National Resistance
Conflicted with athletes, extracurricular activities, summer camps, social
activities
Timing was bad for year-round reform, due to space and cost

85. National Resistance
Conflicted with athletes, extracurricular activities, summer camps, social
activities
Timing was bad for year-round reform, due to space and cost
Government support, public confidence, established cultural traditions
prevented the year-round movement to be reformed

86. National Resistance
Conflicted with athletes, extracurricular activities, summer camps, social
activities
Timing was bad for year-round reform, due to space and cost
Government support, public confidence, established cultural traditions
prevented the year-round movement to be reformed
In the 1960s dramatic change to US schools due to, postwar increase in
births, enrollments soared, school financial difficulties

87. National Resistance
Conflicted with athletes, extracurricular activities, summer camps, social
activities
Timing was bad for year-round reform, due to space and cost
Government support, public confidence, established cultural traditions
prevented the year-round movement to be reformed
In the 1960s dramatic change to US schools due to, postwar increase in
births, enrollments soared, school financial difficulties
Consequence:
‣ Tried to find mew solutions other then building new schools

88. National Resistance

89. National Resistance
Argued the that the traditional calendar “was established
when america was largely and agrarian society and
youngsters were needed at home during planting and
harvesting time.”

90. National Resistance
Argued the that the traditional calendar “was established
when america was largely and agrarian society and
youngsters were needed at home during planting and
harvesting time.”
School systems argued that a nine month schooling and a
3-month summer was failing education.

91. National Resistance
Argued the that the traditional calendar “was established
when america was largely and agrarian society and
youngsters were needed at home during planting and
harvesting time.”
School systems argued that a nine month schooling and a
3-month summer was failing education.
Year round school reform became more successful after
1960 but it did not have a major impact.

92. “[T]he long, hot summer is a period of retrogression through idleness
and boredom...[the] manner in which the traditional school calendar was
structured was an open invitation to mischief and vandalism.”
George Jensen
President of the Minneapolis Board of Education
The Supreme Court

93. “[T]he long, hot summer is a period of retrogression through idleness
and boredom...[the] manner in which the traditional school calendar was
structured was an open invitation to mischief and vandalism.”
George Jensen
President of the Minneapolis Board of Education
The Supreme Court

94. Year-Round Education Comes to
Town

95. Year-Round Education Comes to
Town
Brownfield was a very nice place to live and go to school but soon it became over
crowded.
‣ Every bond increase and tax increase was rejected between 1966 and 1971
‣ Believed year round schooling would be a solution to there problem late
1960s
‣ Formed ad hoc advisory committee to study the extended school year and
its effects

96. Year-Round Education Comes to
Town
Brownfield was a very nice place to live and go to school but soon it became over
crowded.
‣ Every bond increase and tax increase was rejected between 1966 and 1971
‣ Believed year round schooling would be a solution to there problem late
1960s
‣ Formed ad hoc advisory committee to study the extended school year and
its effects
School officials appeared to be operating under status congruent power model.
‣ Depended “on a thorough investigation of relevant facts before reaching
important decisions
‣ Claimed to be open to new ideas

97. Year-Round Education Comes to
Town

98. Year-Round Education Comes to
Town
Had a large Mexican American population and served more then
1,200 Mexican immigrant students
‣ Believed they would benefit from the nontraditional
calendar of schooling
‣ Based on the hypothesis would improve the mexican
migrant attendance record because they would attend
school during the summer months.
‣ School officials said it was the only solution to overcrowding.

99. Year-Round Education Comes to
Town
Had a large Mexican American population and served more then
1,200 Mexican immigrant students
‣ Believed they would benefit from the nontraditional
calendar of schooling
‣ Based on the hypothesis would improve the mexican
migrant attendance record because they would attend
school during the summer months.
‣ School officials said it was the only solution to overcrowding.
1960s early 1970s school systems were able to choose from over
thirty extended school years patterns.

100. “Mandated Bilingual Education
Comes to Town”

101. “Mandated Bilingual Education
Comes to Town”
Controversial because it provided curriculum and pedagogy in Spanish
for Mexican American Limited English Proficiency (LEP) students

102. “Mandated Bilingual Education
Comes to Town”
Controversial because it provided curriculum and pedagogy in Spanish
for Mexican American Limited English Proficiency (LEP) students
Raised issues concerning
‣ Immigration
‣ Language Policy
‣ Patriotism
‣ Demographic Changes
‣ Ethnocentrism

103. National Debate

104. National Debate
Bilingualism debate arose in the 1960s and 1970s

105. National Debate
Bilingualism debate arose in the 1960s and 1970s
Became a Civil Rights issue that entailed
‣ A means for Mexican Americans to obtain mainstream respect
for their cultural
‣ An instrument to fight discrimination against the non-English-
speaking
‣ A device for Mexican Americans to integrate themselves into the
education profession

106. Bilingualism and the Law

107. Bilingualism and the Law
1968 - President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the
Bilingual Education Act

108. Bilingualism and the Law
1968 - President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the
Bilingual Education Act
1970 - U.S. Government enters a debate

109. Bilingualism and the Law
1968 - President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the
Bilingual Education Act
1970 - U.S. Government enters a debate
Lau v. Nichols (1974)
‣ Argued that federally funded school districts had
to provide students of foreign origin with limited
English proficiency the services that would give
them equal access to schools.

110. “[Bilingual education is going to]
tempt the infestation of
[Brownfield] with more people
from Mexico [and] aid in the
deterioration of our society as we
know it.”
J. Crawlings
Resident of Brownfield, Texas

111. “[Bilingual education is going to]
tempt the infestation of
[Brownfield] with more people
from Mexico [and] aid in the
deterioration of our society as we
know it.”
J. Crawlings
Resident of Brownfield, Texas

112. Opposition to Bilingualism

113. Opposition to Bilingualism
White teachers became frustrated with bilingual education
because they lacked the skills to work with non-English-
speaking students.

114. Opposition to Bilingualism
White teachers became frustrated with bilingual education
because they lacked the skills to work with non-English-
speaking students.
As the district drew closer to a Bilingual Master Plan draft,
a group of white parents and teachers, calling themselves
Concerned Citizens for Education (CCFE), sought to
defeat the expansion of bilingual education in their
district.
‣ They believed that it was harmful to their children.

115. Opposition to Bilingualism

116. Opposition to Bilingualism

117. Opposition to Bilingualism
If Brownfield did not follow the law, their would be
legal ramifications

118. Opposition to Bilingualism
If Brownfield did not follow the law, their would be
legal ramifications
Opponents of the bill felt that it was “foreign and un-
American.”

119. Opposition to Bilingualism
If Brownfield did not follow the law, their would be
legal ramifications
Opponents of the bill felt that it was “foreign and un-
American.”
Support of the bill was crucial for Mexican American
students.

120. Where Mexican Americans Stood
in Desegregation

121. Where Mexican Americans Stood
in Desegregation
Mexican Americans were generally left out of the
desegregation rhetoric until the 1970s.

122. Where Mexican Americans Stood
in Desegregation
Mexican Americans were generally left out of the
desegregation rhetoric until the 1970s.
Policymakers saw Mexican American students’ integration as
a “political nightmare” because they
‣ Had different “linguistic needs”
‣ Did not fit into a “Black White context”

123. Where Mexican Americans Stood
in Desegregation
Mexican Americans were generally left out of the
desegregation rhetoric until the 1970s.
Policymakers saw Mexican American students’ integration as
a “political nightmare” because they
‣ Had different “linguistic needs”
‣ Did not fit into a “Black White context”
In the 1970s, policymakers questioned the “ethnic status” of
Mexican Americans.

124. Where Mexican Americans Stood
in Desegregation
Mexican Americans were generally left out of the
desegregation rhetoric until the 1970s.
Policymakers saw Mexican American students’ integration as
a “political nightmare” because they
‣ Had different “linguistic needs”
‣ Did not fit into a “Black White context”
In the 1970s, policymakers questioned the “ethnic status” of
Mexican Americans.
The Keyes v. School District No. 1 decision determined that
Mexican Americans were a “protected minority group.”

125. Indeed, the District Court
recognized this in classifying
predominantly Hispano schools as
"segregated" schools in their own
right. But there is also much
evidence that, in the Southwest,
Hispanos and Negroes have a great
many things in common.
SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver, Colorado (1973)

126. Indeed, the District Court
recognized this in classifying
predominantly Hispano schools as
"segregated" schools in their own
right. But there is also much
evidence that, in the Southwest,
Hispanos and Negroes have a great
many things in common.
SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver, Colorado (1973)

127. Ethnic Isolation

128. Ethnic Isolation
In the mid-1970s, Mexican American students were
slightly more isolated, ethnically, than African
American students.

129. Ethnic Isolation
In the mid-1970s, Mexican American students were
slightly more isolated, ethnically, than African
American students.

131. Ethnic Isolation
In the mid-1970s, Mexican American students were
slightly more isolation, ethnically, than African
American students.

132. Ethnic Isolation
In the mid-1970s, Mexican American students were
slightly more isolation, ethnically, than African
American students.

133. Ethnic Isolation
In the mid-1970s, Mexican American students were
slightly more isolation, ethnically, than African
American students.
These ethnically isolated schools were
inferior.
‣ “‘Inadeqaute Resources, poor equipment,
and unfit building construction”

134. Segregation Within
Desegregated Schools

135. Segregation Within
Desegregated Schools

136. Segregation Within
Desegregated Schools
Mexican Americans were placed into low track courses
because they were English Language Learners.

137. Segregation Within
Desegregated Schools
Mexican Americans were placed into low track courses
because they were English Language Learners.
Educators believed that ELL should “improve their
competency in English before mixing with white
children.”

138. Segregation Within
Desegregated Schools
Mexican Americans were placed into low track courses
because they were English Language Learners.
Educators believed that ELL should “improve their
competency in English before mixing with white
children.”
Became over-represented in lower tracks

139. Segregation Within
Desegregated Schools
Mexican Americans were placed into low track courses
because they were English Language Learners.
Educators believed that ELL should “improve their
competency in English before mixing with white
children.”
Became over-represented in lower tracks
1 in 3 Mexican American students was in a low-ability
class (1 in 7 for White students)

140. Segregation Within
Desegregated Schools
Mexican Americans were placed into low track courses
because they were English Language Learners.
Educators believed that ELL should “improve their
competency in English before mixing with white
children.”
Became over-represented in lower tracks
1 in 3 Mexican American students was in a low-ability
class (1 in 7 for White students)
1 in 7 Mexican American students were in high-ability
classes (1 in 4 for White studentsMexican Americans were
generally left out of the desegregation rhetoric until the

141. Segregation Within
Desegregated Schools

142. Segregation Within
Desegregated Schools
In the 1970s policymakers realized that separating
language-minority students was segregation.
‣ Some felt that bilingual education and integration
contradicted each other.

143. Segregation Within
Desegregated Schools
In the 1970s policymakers realized that separating
language-minority students was segregation.
‣ Some felt that bilingual education and integration
contradicted each other.
Integration and bilingual education were “pitt[ed]”
against each other.

144. Continued Struggle For Equitable
Desegregation

145. Continued Struggle For Equitable
Desegregation
Policymakers in the 1970s attempted to “prevent and
eliminate...racial imbalance.”

146. Continued Struggle For Equitable
Desegregation
Policymakers in the 1970s attempted to “prevent and
eliminate...racial imbalance.”
Minority students in Brownfield were “bused” to the
White school (Atherton) to achieve integration.

147. Continued Struggle For Equitable
Desegregation
Policymakers in the 1970s attempted to “prevent and
eliminate...racial imbalance.”
Minority students in Brownfield were “bused” to the
White school (Atherton) to achieve integration.
Busing had proved unsuccessful by the 1980s.

148. Continued Struggle For Equitable
Desegregation
Policymakers in the 1970s attempted to “prevent and
eliminate...racial imbalance.”
Minority students in Brownfield were “bused” to the
White school (Atherton) to achieve integration.
Busing had proved unsuccessful by the 1980s.
Mexican American and White families both opposed
busing to achieve integration.