1. REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
―ION CREANGA‖ STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE
ENGLISH PHILOLOGY CHAIR
MASTER‘S DEGREE PAPER
PERSUASION AND ARGUMENT IN
WRITING
Submitted by:
Ceban Cristina
Scientific adviser:
E. Sagoian, Ph.D.
associate professor
Chişinău - 2012

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CONTENTS:
INTRODUCTION ………………………………….………………….………... 3
Chapter I. WRITING AS A PROCESS IN LANGUAGE STUDY …….......... 6
1.1The Importance of Writing …………………………………….………..….… 7
1.2 Five Steps of the Writing …………………………….…………….…….… 12
1.3 Principles of Effective Writing …………….………………………...……... 20
Chapter II. PERSUASION AND ARGUMENT IN WRITING ……………. 27
2.1 Using Rhetorical Strategies for Persuasion …………………………….….. 32
2.2 Logical Fallacies ……………………………………………………….…… 47
2.3 Types of Evidence ………………………………………………………..… 52
2.4 Argumentation ………………………………………………………….…... 59
2.4.1Presenting an Argument …………………………………………………… 66
2.5 Persuading Effectively ………………………………………………….…... 71
Chapter III. EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF PERSUASION AND
ARGUMENT IN TEACHING WRITING …………………………………... 82
3.1 Description of the course of the experimental work …………………..….… 82
3.2 Results of the experiment ………………………………………….………. 109
CONCLUSIONS ……………………………………….……………………... 114
BIBLIOGRAPHY …..……………………………………….….…………..… 117
APPENDIX …………………………………………….……….…..... 121

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INTRODUCTION
The Master‘s Paper is devoted to the topic ―PERSUASION AND
ARGUMENT IN WRITING‖. The conducted investigation is from the field of
methods of teaching foreign languages.
Writing is the active thinking process of understanding the author`s ideas,
connecting those ideas to what you already know, and organizing all the ideas so
one can put them on paper. Writing is a complex developmental challenge to be
intertwined with many other developmental accomplishments: attention, memory,
language, and motivation. Being a good writer in English means that a student has
gained a functional knowledge of the principles of the English grammar and
writing system. Most teachers agree that writing skills are increasingly important
and often not adequately taught, writing instruction often takes a backseat to
phonics, handwriting skills, and reading comprehension. Many scholars find that
teaching writing may be more challenging than other subjects where there is an
answer key. Effective writing is one of the most important abilities that an English-
speaker needs. Such ability is a crucial tool that aids the learning process and it is
important in the nowadays ever-changing world. Additionally, a lot of international
standardized tests increasingly contain a writing component, and in some cases
these include a requirement to write an essay on a timed test.
Writing is usefully described by scholars as a process, something which
shows continuous change in time like growth in organic nature. Different things
happen at different stages in the process of putting thoughts into words and words
onto paper. Today's world requires that the goal of teaching writing should
improve students' communicative skills, because, only in that way, students can
express themselves and learn how to follow the social and cultural rules
appropriate in each communicative circumstance.
Many successful language learners know that one of the most important
abilities to possess is the ability to persuade and influence others. Persuasion is
widely perceived as a skill reserved for social influence, the process of guiding
others toward the adoption of an idea, attitude or action by rational and symbolic,

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though not always logic, means. It is also commonly seen as just another form of
manipulation – devious and to be avoided. But persuasion can be a force for
enormous good, it can pull people together, move ideas forward, galvanize change,
and forge constructive solutions. To do all that, however, people must understand
persuasion for what it is – it means to win others over, not to defeat them.
Furthermore, it must be seen as an art form that requires commitment and practice,
especially as today‘s world makes persuasion more necessary than ever.
The actuality of the research work is to understand better teaching writing
concepts and strategies for developing persuasive and argumentative skills.
Second, it is quite useful to enrich our knowledge on methods of teaching aimed at
developing writing skills when we teach English. Third, this research is quite
useful and can have practical value for teaching and studying English as a foreign
(second) language.
The main objectives of the Work are the following:
1. to give general notion on writing concepts, presenting the process of writing,
strategies forming writing skills while studying English.
2. to describe in details activities which are used in teaching persuasive
writing.
3. to show the practical use of different writing activities.
4. to show principles and stages in developing persuasive writing skills.
While writing this Master’s Paper the following research methods were
used:
1) Analysis.
2) Comparison.
3) Description.
4) Generalization.
5) Selection.
6) Synthetical method.
The analytical method has been applied for making an overview of the
existing teaching writing concepts. Comparison was used for finding out common

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features and distinctions in the viewpoints of professional teachers who dealt with
the problem of teaching writing. Descriptive method is the leading one for the
writing of this Paper and is used within each point both in theoretical and practical
parts. Selection is also widely used for the writing practical part, namely when all
the selected activities, methods and strategies were collected and described. For
making general conclusions we have applied synthetical method.
While writing this Paper different scientific works were used. The Work
consists of the Introduction, three Chapters, Conclusion, Bibliography and
Appendix.
The Introduction includes the main goal and objectives of the investigation,
the actuality of the topic and the motives for its choice.
Chapter І presents the general idea of what writing is and the teaching
writing components. It also contains the description of methods, activities and
strategies for developing writing skills.
Chapter ІІ contains an overview of persuasive and argumentative writing,
and such activities used in mastering persuasive skills. The main focus is made on
practical use of the writing activities during the lesson.
Chapter ІІІ contains Experimental Analysis of ―Persuasion and Argument
Techniques in Writing‖ and its results.
The Conclusion contains the results of the investigation on the topic.
Bibliography presents the materials that helped the researcher in the overall
study of the certain topic and finally to realize the objectives of investigation.

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Chapter I. WRITING AS A PROCESS IN LANGUAGE STUDY
Writing which was once considered the domain of the elite and well
educated, has become an essential tool for people of all walks of life in today‘s
global community. Whether used in reporting analyses of current events for
newspapers or web pages, composing academic essays, business reports, letters, or
e-mail messages, the ability to write effectively allows individuals from different
cultures and backgrounds to communicate. Furthermore it is now widely
recognized that writing plays a vital role not only in conveying information, but
also in transforming knowledge to create new knowledge. It is thus of central
importance to students in academic and second language programs throughout the
world. In many of these settings, the assessment of writing ability is of critical
importance. Employers, academic instructors and writing teachers need to make
decisions about potential employees and students, based on how well they can
communicate in writing.
Writing is normally a continuing and sustained act of communication. This
is not true of most spoken contexts especially those most commonly experienced
by children, who are most accustomed to ‗short burst‘ utterances and the give and
take interruptions, questioning and replies from their listeners. Writing is in
contrast a more solitary and demanding activity. The writer seeks to maintain an
independent and if possible uninterrupted flow of language sometimes over an
extended period of time before the final written product is achieved. Compared to
speech writing is ‗painfully slow‘. In contrast to speaking, writing is normally
much more organized and coherent. The writer is expected to edit out digressions
and repetitions. In most written texts there is no place for ‗fillers‘ and only very
limited opportunities exist to communicate the subtleties of intonation, facial
expression and gesture (by means of underlining, for example, exclamation marks
or block capitals). In fact in creating a written text of any length the writer is
normally expected to choose language forms that are more concise than those used

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in spoken contexts, but at the same time expression is often more complex in its
syntax and more varied in its vocabulary.
Since writing is a complex and cognitively demanding activity, to be
successful, writers need an understanding of the components of a quality
test as well as knowledge of writing strategies that can be used to shape
and organize the writing process. The following subchapters examine the
nature of writing as a process which involves a variety of activities, as well
as analyse writing components in order to increase the reader’s awareness
of what appears to happen when a student attempts to create a written text.
[31, pp.10-16]
§1.1 The Importance of Writing
The ability to write effectively is becoming increasingly important in our
global community, and instruction in writing is thus assuming an increasing role in
foreign-language education. As advances in transportation and technology allow
people from nations and cultures throughout the world to interact with each other,
communications across languages becomes ever more essentials. As a result, the
ability to speak and write a second language is becoming widely recognized as an
important skill for educational, business, and personal reasons. Writing has also
become more important as tenets of communicative language teaching-that is,
teaching language as a system of communication rather than as an object of study-
have taken hold in both second-and foreign-language settings. The traditional view
in language classes that writing functions primarily to support and reinforce
patterns of oral language use, grammar, and vocabulary, is being supplanted by the
notion that writing in a second language is a worthwhile enterprise in and of itself.
Wherever the acquisition of a specific language skill is seen as important, it
becomes equally important to test that skill, and writing is no exception. Thus, as
the role of writing in second- language education increases, there is an ever greater
demand for valid and reliable way to test writing ability, both for classroom use

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and as a predictor of future professional or academic success. Writing is put by
people in different situations are so varied that no single definition can cover all
situations. For example, the ability to write down exactly what someone else says
is quite different from the ability to write a persuasive argument. Instead of
attempting an all-encompassing definition, then, it may be more useful to begin by
delineating the situations in which people learn and use second languages in
general and second-language writing in particular, and the types of writing that are
likely to be relevant for second-language writers. While virtually all children are
able to speak their native language when they begin school, writing must be
explicitly taught. Furthermore, in comparison to speaking, listening, and reading,
writing outside of school settings is relatively rare, and extensive public writing is
reserved for those employed in specialized careers such as education, law, or
journalism. In first-language settings, the ability to write well has a very close
relationship to academic and professional success.
Writing as compared to speaking, can be seen as a more standardized system
which must be acquired through special instruction. Mastery of this standard
system is an important prerequisite of cultural and educational participation and the
maintenance of one‘s rights and duties. The fact that writing is more standardized
than speaking allows for a higher degree of sanctions when people deviate from
that standard. Thus, in first-language education, learning to write involves learning
a specialized version of a language already known to students. This specialized
language differs in important ways from spoken language, both in form and use,
but builds upon linguistic resources that students already possess. The ultimate
goal of learning to write is, for most students, to be able to participate fully in
many aspects of society beyond school, and for some, to pursue careers that
involve extensive writing. [52, pp.32-46]
The value of being able to write effectively increases as students‘ progress
through compulsory education on to higher education. At the university level in
particular, writing is seen not just as a standardized system of communication but
also as an essential tool for learning. At least in the English-speaking world one of

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the main functions of writing at higher levels of education is to expand one‘s own
knowledge through reflection rather than simply to communicate information.
Writing and critical thinking are seen as closely linked, and expertise in writing is
seen as an indication that students have mastered the cognitive skills required for
university work. Or to phrase it somewhat more negatively, a perceived lack of
writing expertise is frequently seen as a sign that students do not possess the
appropriate thinking and reasoning skills that they need to succeed. In first-
language writing instruction, therefore, particularly in higher education, a great
deal of emphasis is placed on originality of thought, the development of ideas, and
the soundness of the writer‘s logic. Conventions of language {voice, tone, style,
accuracy, mechanics} are important as well, but frequently these are seen as
secondary matters, to be addressed after matters of content and organization. While
the specific goals of writing instruction may vary from culture to culture, it is clear
that writing is an important part of the curriculum in schools from earliest grades
onward, and that most children in countries that have a formal education system
will learn to write, at least at a basic level, in that setting. In this sense, we can say
that first language writing instruction is relatively standardized within a particular
culture. [27, pp.44-61]
In contrast, the same cannot be said of second-language writing because of
the wide variety of situations in which people learn and use second languages, both
as children and as adults, in schools and in other settings. We can distinguish
between at least five main groups of second- language learners {adapted from
Bernhardt, 1991}. The first group consists of children from a minority language
group receiving their education in the majority language. These children need to
learn to read and write in a language that is not spoken in their home in order to
succeed in school and ultimately in the workplace. A second group of children are
majority language speakers in immersion programs or otherwise learning a second
language in school. In this case, mastery of the second language enhances their
education but is not critical to ultimate educational success, in contrast to the first
group. A common factor for both groups of children is that their first language id

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drill developing, and that, like first- language writers, writing is very much a
school-based and school-oriented activity.
There are also three distinct groups of adult second-language learners. The
first group consists of immigrants to a new country, who are frequently from a
lower-prestige language background and may or may not be literate in their first
language. For these learners, writing at a basic functional level is essential for
survival in the workplace. In marked contrast to this group is a second group of
adults: those who have left their home countries to seek an advanced university
degree. These adults are already highly educated and literate in their first language,
and their writing needs are very sophisticated. Finally, there is a third group of L2
learners: majority language group members who are learning a second language for
personal interest and/ or career or educational enhancement. Like the second
group, this third group is generally well educated; unlike the second group,
however, they may not have as great a need to write in their second language, and
certainly the writing that they will do is less complex and demanding than that of
the second group. To summarize, then, groups of second-language learners can be
distinguished by age, by level of education and first-language literacy, and by the
real-world need for writing outside of the classroom. In addition to these factors,
the ability and opportunity to write in a second language are also determined by
other considerations. An additional factor is the relative similarity or difference
between the two languages: writing in a language that is closely related to one‘s
native language in terms of grammar, vocabulary, and writing system is clearly
easier than writing in a language that is vastly different. Finally, an important
consideration, which is related to the real-world need for writing discussed above,
is the role of the second language as a language of wider communication: someone
learning English as a foreign language will probably have more realistic needs for
writing in that language than someone learning Russian.
Effective writing skills are to a writer what petrol is to a car. Like the petrol
and car relationship, without solid skills writers cannot move ahead. These skills
don‘t come overnight, and they require patience and determination. You have to

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work smart and hard to acquire them. Only with experience, you can enter the
realm of effective, always-in-demand writers.
Of course, effective writing requires a good command of the language in
which you write or want to write. Once you have that command, you need to learn
some tips and tricks so that you can have an edge over others in this hard-to-
succeed world of writers. There are some gifted writers, granted. But gifted writers
also need to polish their skills frequently in order to stay ahead of competition and
earn their livelihood. [41, pp.212-242]
Good writing stays sharply focused. The writer knows what the subject is,
and never veers far away from that subject. Think of the writer as a rower of a boat
trying to row ashore. That rower must keep his eyes acutely focused on an object
on the shore in order to row straight. If he shifts focus, he'll shift course and miss
the dock. The same holds true for the writer. Good writing is also simple and clear,
one should leave no doubt in the minds of his readers about what he or she is trying
to say to them. Unfortunately, some people seem to forget this principle, especially
when they write.
In academic writing, students struggle to achieve a style of writing that does
not come naturally to them. Learners imagine that they must follow a convoluted
style based on vague impressions of what they read in the scientific literature.
Nothing could be further from the truth and it is here that many of the models that
they use in the literature let them down.
There are just three immutable characteristics of good academic writing that
distinguish it from all other literature. It must always be:
• precise
• clear
• brief
... and in that order.
If it is vague, it is not academic writing; if it is unclear or ambiguous, it is
not academic writing and if it is long winded and unnecessarily discursive, it is
poor academic writing. But precision or clarity should not be sacrificed in order to

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be brief. So, if it has to take a few more words to make the thoughts crystal clear to
as many readers as possible, then one should use those words. The good news is
that, if one is precise, clear and brief, then he or she does not have to conform to
any other specific rules to be a good scientific writer. The style of academic
writing is plain and simple English, similar to that one would use in a conversation
with a colleague. [30, pp.24-51]
§1.2 Five Steps of Writing
Writing is a complex process that allows writers to explore thoughts and
ideas, and make them visible and concrete. It encourages thinking and learning for
it motivates communication and makes thought available for reflection. When
thought is written down, ideas can be examined, reconsidered, added to,
rearranged, and changed. Writing is most likely to encourage thinking and learning
when students view writing as a process. By recognizing that writing is a recursive
process, and that every writer uses the process in a different way, students
experience less pressure to ‗get it right the first time‘ and are more willing to
experiment, explore, revise, and edit. Yet, novice writers need to practice ‗writing‘
or exercises that involve copying or reproduction of learned material in order to
learn the conventions of spelling, punctuation, grammatical agreement, and the
like. Furthermore, students need to ‗write in the language‘ through engaging in a
variety of grammar practice activities of controlled nature. Finally, they need to
begin to write within a framework ‗flexibility measures‘ that include:
transformation exercises, sentence combining, expansion, embellishments, idea
frames, and similar activities. [59]
Writing may be described as a five-step process: generating ideas,
organizing ideas, writing a draft, revising and rewriting, and proofreading.

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Generating Ideas
Whatever type of writing a student is attempting, the prewriting stage can
be the most important. This is when students gather their information, and begin to
organize it into a cohesive unit. Prewriting is the most creative step and most
students develop a preferred way to organize their thoughts. Step 1, Generating
Ideas, may be accomplished by using one or more of the following activities:
Freewriting
This term was used by Peter Elbow (Writing Without Teachers, Oxford,
1973) to describe what is essentially free - association writing, where the writer
starts in one direction or another but lets the writing take whatever direction it
seems to want. In freewriting, the teacher sets a page limit or time limit, and then
students simply write about the general topic until the time limit is expired or until
they have met the page limit. Start a class in either composition or literature by
inviting the students to write for five minutes in response to a prompt that has
something directly to do with the day's agenda (What makes writing hard? When is
it easy for you? What is the best [or worst] writing you‘ve ever done? Etc.)
Directions for freewriting are simple and students usually do it easily the
first time they try:
1. Write fast for a limited period of time (five or ten minutes).
2. Don't stop moving your pen or typing on the keyboard to make sure new words
help generate ideas.
3. Write for the whole time period since good ideas often come late in the writing
process.
4. Don‘t worry about spelling, punctuation, organization, or style since you are the
audience.
As learners write, they do not have to worry about spelling, grammar,
punctuation, etc. They simply write down whatever comes to mind regarding the

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general topic. Once students have free written, it s a good idea to have them share
with nearby classmates and simply talk about what they were writing about. They
can also examine what was written, looking for categories into which ideas may be
grouped, ideas that show a cause-effect relationship, and so on. The information
generated in this manner may form the basis for developing your topic. Once the
class fills up with student voices, you can interrupt and ask for volunteers to share
thoughts with the class as a whole.
When students free write as a regular part of each writing class, instructors
commonly ask that these informal writings be kept in "journals"--so that each free
write becomes, in essence, a journal entry. If you plan for students to keep
journals, ask them to buy loose-leaf notebooks, so that the first writing they do in
class can be inserted as the first entries in their journals.
Brainstorming
On a given topic, students simply list ideas as they occur to them instead of
engaging in continuous writing ideas in a limited time. Depending on the context,
either individual or group brainstorming is effective and learners generate ideas
quickly and freely. The good characteristics of brainstorming are that the students
are not criticized for their ideas so students will be open to sharing new ideas.
Branching
With branching, you use a large sheet of paper and write the general topic
in the center of the paper and draw a circle around it. Then, as new ideas related to
the general topic come to mind, you draw a short line extending outward from the
center circle; at the end of the line, you draw another circle and write the related
idea in this new circle, forming what resembles a spoked wheel. Each new idea
may, in turn, cause new related ideas to come to mind. If so, simply draw new
spokes outward from the circle containing the related idea, draw a new circle at the
end of the line, and write the new, related idea in the circle. At some point in the

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process, you may identify a main topic for your essay in a center circle and
supporting ideas in the surrounding, spoked circles.
Questioning
Questioning works very well when you have a general topic in mind. In
this case, you simply find answers to questions such as: Who? What? When?
Where? Why? How? The answers to these questions are the supporting details
used to develop the main topic.
Other sources of ideas may include:
Journals
If you maintain a personal journal/diary, this may be a tremendous source
of ideas. After all, the events and observations you record reflect things that you
know and things about which you have not only knowledge, but also strong
feelings.
Conversations with Friends
Recalling recent conversations with friends may be an excellent source of
ideas for topics. The topics you discuss with friends will be topics of interest to
you and your audience. Selecting interesting topics is a very important aspect of
topic selection; it will help you keep the reader involved.
Readings
Recalling things you have read recently may provide ideas for topics just
as recalling recent conversations with friends.
Organizing Ideas
Step 2, Organizing Your Ideas, is a two-part step. First, it involves
narrowing the number of supporting details to a reasonable size. As you do this,

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remember to select an appropriate number of details to accomplish your purpose in
writing. You should also ensure your supporting details are specific, relevant, and
typical. Then, arrange the selected details in a reasonable order. If you are writing
a narrative essay, then arrange details in chronological order. If you are writing a
descriptive essay, then spatial (geographical) order may be best (e.g. left-to-right,
top-to-bottom, near-to-far, etc.). For a persuasive essay, arranging details
according to importance (least-to-most or most-to-least) may work best. When
working with examples, work from general to specific or from least complex to
most complex.
Writing the First Draft
The actual writing stage is essentially just an extension of the prewriting
process. The student transfers the information they have gathered and organized
into a traditional format. This may take the shape of a simple paragraph, a one-
page essay, or a multi-page report. Up until this stage, they may not be exactly
certain which direction their ideas will go, but this stage allows them to settle on
the course the paper will take. Teaching about writing can sometimes be as simple
as evaluation good literature together, and exploring what makes the piece
enjoyable or effective. It also involves helping a student choose topics for writing
based on their personal interests. Modeling the writing process in front of your
child also helps them see that even adults struggle for words and have to work at
putting ideas together. [20, p.38]
Unlike freewriting or journal writing, the writers aim drafts at audiences
other than themselves. Most drafting is done by a writer alone, most often outside
of class-- though sometimes class time is allotted for writers to start or work on
drafts in class—a quiet, supportive environment. It is fair to expect early drafts to
be rough; when reading these, instructors usually attend to larger intentions (topic,
organization, evidence) and skip over surface problems (spelling, punctuation,
wordiness), since students will go beyond these language constructions in

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subsequent drafts; to attend to matters of editing too early is a waste of both
instructor and student time.
In the third step, Writing a Draft, the goal is to express your ideas in an
organized, focused form. A simple way to begin is to first construct a sentence
outline of your essay. To accomplish this, you write one sentence that expresses
your main idea (this is the thesis). Then, you write one sentence for each
supporting/developing idea in the order you have already determined. From this
outline, you can easily construct a simple draft of your essay.
Begin the draft with a general introduction. This may be background
information, a quotation from an expert on the topic, a personal anecdote, or
whatever else will allow you to lead into the thesis statement. Once you have
introduced the subject and included your thesis, you are ready for the draft of the
body of the essay.
In the body, you will write one paragraph for each supporting idea. The
sentences you wrote for the supporting details in the sentence outline will serve as
topic sentences for the paragraphs in the body. Generally, each paragraph of the
body will begin with a topic sentence, which will be followed by additional
clarification/explanation. If you have doubts about an idea‘s value in the body,
include it. If new ideas come to mind while you are writing the draft, include
them. You can always eliminate unwanted items later.
Once the body is drafted, you are ready for the final part of the essay, the
conclusion. In the conclusion, you need to provide a sense of closure. This is
often accomplished by summarizing the main elements of the body, restating the
main point from the thesis, and/or adding any final observations about the topic
(such as a warning or a statement to urge the reader to action).

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Revision and Rewriting
Revising and Rewriting, the fourth step in the writing process, generally
begins with a review of the supporting details in your essay. First, review the
thesis (sentence that expresses the main idea of the essay) to make sure it is clear,
direct, and complete. Next, reread the topic sentences for the paragraphs in the
body to ensure they relate to the main idea contained in the thesis. Review the
supporting details to make sure they are specific, relevant, typical, and sufficient in
number to accomplish your purpose. Then review the order of presentation to
ensure it is reasonable.
Next, make sure paragraphs have beginnings and endings. Transitions
(linking expressions such as first, second, next, later, above, and below) are
commonly used to introduce new paragraphs. Also, make sure sentences within
paragraphs are connected to each other. Introduce examples used to illustrate
supporting ideas with transitions (such as for example, in contrast, also, therefore,
and consequently). Then, review all sentences with each paragraph. Delete, revise,
or combine sentences that say the same thing.
Replace vague, unclear words with more descriptive ones.
Finally, revise wording, grammar, spelling, and punctuation to ensure they
are in Standard English form and are appropriate for the audience and purpose of
the essay. You should continue to revise your essay until you are satisfied with
what you have said and how you have said it.
Rewriting implies returning to a draft one or more times to make sure that
the language says exactly what the writer intends it to say. After some number of
drafts, the writer lets the piece go and calls it finished. It is common in writing
classes for students to actually finish only a small number of formal papers (3-5) in
several drafts each, since many instructors believe that it's the in-depth

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involvement with a single topic that lets a writer master and advance that topic--
and in the process learn the tricks of the writer's trade.
Revision is conceptual work. It is attending to the larger conceptual matters of
writing: organization, ideas, how an argument works, whether it's well supported,
what to include and exclude from a paragraph or paper. Editing is primarily
sentence level work, making sure that ideas are articulated clearly, precisely, and
correctly for a given audience.
Revising, or editing is usually the least favorite stage of the writing process,
especially for beginning writers. Critiquing one‘s own writing can easily create
tension and frustration. But as you support your young writers, remind them that
even the most celebrated authors spend the majority of their time on this stage of
the writing process. Revising can include adding, deleting, rearranging and
substituting words, sentences, and even entire paragraphs to make their writing
more accurately represent their ideas. It is often not a one-time event, but a
continual process as the paper progresses. When teaching revision, be sure to allow
your child time to voice aloud the problems they see in their writing. This may be
very difficult for some children, especially sensitive ones, so allow them to start
with something small, such as replacing some passive verbs in their paper with
more active ones. [69]
Proofreading
In the fifth step in the writing process, Proofreading, check for errors with
mechanics. Your final essay is to be in Standard English form, so you should
review it a final time to ensure it does not contain any errors in English usage.
Run-on sentences and fragments should be eliminated. You should also ensure
there are no errors in spelling, punctuation, grammar, and capitalization. [54]
Proofreading - is a chance for the writer to scan his or her paper for
mistakes in grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Although it can be tempting for
parents to perform this stage of the writing process for the child, it is important that

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they gain proofreading skills for themselves as this improves a student‘s writing
over time. And because children want their writing to be effective, this can actually
be the most opportune to teach some of the standard rules of grammar and
punctuation. When students learn the rules of mechanics during the writing process
they are much more likely to remember to use them in the future. [1, pp.48-62]
§1.3 Principles of Effective Writing
Writing is the art of making an utterance perfectly natural through the
perfectly unnatural process of making every word and phrase again and again,
cutting here and adding there, until it is just so. It is contrived spontaneity. What
the writer wants is something just like speech only more compressed, more
melodic, more economical, more balanced, more precise.
According to Aristotle: ―To write well, express yourself like the common
people, but think like a wise man.‖ What makes a good writer is that he knows the
difference between those of his sentences that work and those that don‘t; between
those he gets nearly right and those he nails; between those that sing and swing and
those that mumble and fail. Sentences fail for many reasons. You may not know
enough about what a sentence is, for instance, to reach the end with poise. Or you
may know more than enough, but you give them too much weight to carry; you
work them too hard. And they break. [18, pp.3-55]
Students must express their ideas clearly, concisely, and completely when
speaking and writing. If their written messages aren't clear or lack important
details, people will be confused and will not know how to respond. In addition, if
their written messages are too lengthy, people simply don't read them.
The process of good writing involves three basic steps - preparing, writing, and
editing. Practicing the following 16 principles will help anyone be a more effective
writer.

21. 21
Know your objective
Think before you write. What's your goal? Make sure you fully understand
the assignment. Are you writing a one-paragraph executive summary or a five-
page report? Try answering this question: What specifically do I want the reader to
know, think, or do?
Make a list
Write down the ideas or points you want to cover. Why? This helps you get
started in identifying the key ideas you want to discuss. If you have trouble getting
started, try discussing your ideas with someone else. "Kicking an idea around"
often helps you clarify your objective and fine-tune what you are trying to
accomplish.
Organize your ideas
Just as it's difficult to find what you want in a messy, disorganized desk
drawer, it's hard to find important ideas in a poorly organized message. Here are a
few ways you can organize your ideas:
Importance - Begin with the most important piece of information and then
move on to the next most important.
Chronological order - Describe what happened first, second, third.
Problem-Solution - Define the problem, then describe possible alternatives
or the solution you recommend.
Question-Answer - State a question and then provide your answer.
Organize your ideas so the reader can easily follow your argument or
the point you are trying to get across.
Back it up
Have an opinion but back it up - support with data. There are a number of
ways you can support your ideas, including explanations, examples, facts, personal

22. 22
experiences, stories, statistics, and quotations. It's best to use a combination of
approaches to develop and support your ideas.
Separate main ideas
Each paragraph should have one main point or idea captured in a topic
sentence. The topic sentence is normally the first sentence in the paragraph. Each
paragraph should be started by an indentation or by skipping a line.
Use bullets or numbers
If you are listing or discussing a number of items, use bullets or number
your points like I have done in this paper. Here's an example of using bullets.
Join the Business Club to:
Increase sales
Gain new marketing ideas
Make new friends
Give back to your profession
Write complete sentences
A sentence is about someone doing something - taking action. The
‗someone‘ may be a manager, employee, customer, etc. The "doing something -
taking action" can include mental processes such as thinking, evaluating, and
deciding, or physical actions such as writing and talking. A good rule to practice is
to have subjects closely followed by their verbs.
Use short sentences
Sentences should be a maximum of 12 to 15 words in length. According
to the American Press Institute, sentences with 15 or fewer words are understood
90% of the time. Sentences with eight or fewer words are understood 100% of the
time.

23. 23
Be precise and accurate
Words like "large", "small", "as soon as possible", "they", "people",
"teamwork", and "customer focus" are vague and imprecise. The reader may
interpret these words to mean something different than what you intended.
Reduce communication breakdowns by being specific and precise. Define
terms as needed. The reader may not understand certain acronyms and
abbreviations.
Use commas appropriately
A comma should be used: to separate the elements in a series of three or more
items: His favorite colors are red, white, and blue; to set off introductory
elements: After coffee and donuts, the meeting will begin; to separate
adjectives: That tall, distinguished, good-looking professor teaches history.
Use the correct word
Here are several words that cause confusion.
You're is a contraction for "you are" Your means possession, such as "your
coat."
It's is a contraction for "it is." ‗Its‘ indicates possession.
Their means possession/ownership-"their house." There means location.
They're is a contraction for "they are."
Avoid redundancies
It is a redundancy to use multiple words that mean or say the same thing. For
example, consider the following:
Redundant - My personal beliefs… Beliefs are personal, so just state, My
beliefs...
Redundant - I decided to paint the machine gray in color. Gray is a color,
so just state, I decided to paint the machine gray.

24. 24
Numbers
When using numbers in the body of your paper, spell out numbers one
through nine, such as "Three men decided…" When using numbers 10 or above it's
proper to write the number, such as "The report indicated 68 customers…"
Have a conclusion
Would you really enjoy watching a movie or sporting event that had no
conclusion? No. The conclusion ties your points together. The reader wants to
know the final score - the bottom line message.
Edit your work
Read what you have written several times.
On your first read, focus on organization and sentence structure. Shorten
long sentences. Cross out unnecessary words and phrases. Reorganize
material as needed.
Read it again and make sure commas are used appropriately and that there is
a punctuation mark at the end of every sentence.
Read it a third time and focus on word choice. Are there certain words that
are vague or unclear? Replace them with specific words.
Read what you have written aloud to yourself or to a friend to see if he or
she (and you) can understand it and improve it in any way.
A significant part of good writing involves editing. Very few people can sit
down and write a perfect paragraph on their first try. It requires multiple rewrites.
Get help
There are several web sites that can help improve students‘ writing
providing useful articles and tips on good writing, other sites also offer help with

25. 25
spelling and making sure the use of words is correct, and also have links to lots of
other resources.
Good writers take almost too much care with their work. This led Thomas
Mann to say that ―a writer is somebody for whom writing is more difficult than it
is for other people‖. To be a writer you don‘t have to be the smartest soul on earth;
you don‘t have to know the biggest words. You just have to commit yourself to
saying what it is you have to say as clearly as you can manage; you have to listen
to it and remake it till it sounds like you at your best; you just have to make
yourself hard to please, word after word. Until you make it seem easy. Work hard
to make your writing seem to have cost you no effort at all. Struggle gamely to
make it seem that your words came as naturally to you as the sun to the sky in the
morning. Just as though you opened your mouth and spoke. ―The end of all
method,‖ said Zeno, ―is to seem to have no method at all.‖ [26, pp.43-59]
Of all the arts writing is the most vulgar — and the least like art. It makes art
out of words, out of the stuff we conduct our lives in: it makes art, not out of paint
or textiles, but out of speech, out of what we use to buy the paper and scold the
children and write the report. The best writing sounds just like speech, only better.
Good writing is a transcendent kind of talking. But because writing isn‘t, in fact,
speaking, we have to take more care with it: writing lasts, and we have only the
words with which to make our point and strike our tone. [23, pp.24-52]
To overcome the fear that you don‘t know how to write, the best thing to do
is the most important writing step of all — start writing, uncomfortable though it
may feel, as though you were talking. Don‘t think of it as writing at all — think of
it as talking on paper, and start talking with your fingers. Once you‘ve tricked
yourself into trusting the words your ―speaking mind‖ suggests, once you‘ve
stopped thinking about it as writing, you‘ll be surprised how much more easily the
writing comes to you, and how much better it works.

26. 26
Writing, as Carol Gelderman put it, is the most exact form of thinking. It
exacts — from those of us who want to do it well — precision, discernment,
fineness of observation and detachment. By its nature, true writing practices
critical thinking. ‗Critical’ has come to mean to most people something like
―negative.‖ It also means ―very important.‖ But its primary meaning is ―exacting,‖
―skeptical,‖ ―disinterested,‖ ―discerning,‖ ―analytical.‖ We take it from the Greek
word ‗kritikos’, meaning ―one who is skilled in judging; one who takes things
apart.‖ The writer is the ‗kritikos’, but she‘s also skilled at putting things back
together again. Good, sustained critical thinking underlies good, clear writing: you
could almost say that good writing is critical thinking. It is critical thinking
resolved and put down on paper — elegantly.
―What you‘re saying is that you want it said short and right and nice.‖ The
sentences, though they may still work, lose their life and their capacity to inform,
let alone delight, anyone, including ourselves, who makes them. The shapelier and
elegant one‘s sentences are, the sounder they are structurally, the better one‘s
writing will be. The leaner and clearer and livelier one‘s sentences are, the bigger
is their effect and paragraphs will simply rock and roll. Writing is both creativity
and discipline; it is freedom within bounds. You need to know the constraints in
order to know how to be free within them. [38, p.37-88]
Summing all up, one doesn't have to be a great writer to be successful.
However, he or she must be able to clearly and succinctly explain his/hers thoughts
and ideas in writing. Strive to be simple, clear, and brief. Like any skill,
"good writing" requires practice, feedback, and ongoing improvement.

27. 27
Chapter II. PERSUASION AND ARGUMENT IN WRTITING
Every day we are confronted by persuasion. Food makers want us to buy
their newest products, while movie studios want us to go see the latest
blockbusters. Because persuasion is such a pervasive component of our lives, it is
easy to overlook how we are influenced by outside sources. Due to the usefulness
of influence, persuasion techniques have been studied and observed since ancient
times, but social psychologists began formally studying these techniques early in
the 20th-century. The goal of persuasion is to convince the target to internalize the
persuasive argument and adopt this new attitude as a part of their core belief
system. When we think of persuasion, negative examples are often the first to
come to mind, but persuasion can also be used as a positive force. Public service
campaigns that urge people to recycle or quit smoking are great examples of
persuasion used to improve people‘s lives. [55]
Every single human requires the art of persuasion at some point in their
lives. As a child, one might use persuasion for the attainment of a toy or as an adult
for the acquiring of other objects. A person might whine, throw tantrums, but this
behavior never seems to attain what is wanted by the person and just makes things
worse. What one needs is persuasion as it is the only method that can be pursued
by one to achieve what he wants. While the art and science of persuasion has been
of interest since the time of the Ancient Greeks, there are significant differences
between how persuasion occurs today and how it has occurred in the past. [70]
In his book The Dynamics of Persuasion: Communication and Attitudes in
the 21st Century, Richard M. Perloff outlines the five major ways in which modern
persuasion differs from the past:
1. The number of persuasive message has grown tremendously. Think for a
moment about how many advertisements you encounter on a daily basis.
According to various sources, the number of advertisements the average U.S.
adult is exposed to each day ranges from around 300 to over 3,000.

28. 28
2. Persuasive communication travels far more rapidly. Television, radio and
the Internet all help spread persuasive messages very quickly.
3. Persuasion is big business. In addition to the companies that are in business
purely for persuasive purposes (such as advertising agencies, marketing firms,
public relations companies), many other business are reliant on persuasion to
sell goods and services.
4. Contemporary persuasion is much more subtle. Of course, there are plenty
of ads that use very obvious persuasive strategies, but many messages are far
more subtle. For example, businesses sometimes carefully craft very specific
image designed to urge viewers to buy products or services in order to attain
that projected lifestyle.
5. Persuasion is more complex. Consumers are more diverse and have more
choices, so marketers have to be savvier when it comes to selecting their
persuasive medium and message. [32, pp.45-58]
All of the written texts have to a greater or lesser degree stressed persuasion,
or what language scholars call rhetoric, the use of persuasive language to influence
readers or listeners. For example, asking readers to accept your interpretation of a
description or your idea about how two things compare or contrast involves a mild
form of persuasion even if the discussion is largely factual and objective. So too
does having someone accept your definition of an important idea or term or of
what you think is comparable or analogous to that term. The point is that almost
every form of writing except the listing of purely factual information tries to
persuade the reader to some degree. Furthermore, even a completely objective list
may try to be persuasive if those facts have been carefully selected with the
ultimate goal of changing the reader‘s mind. Imagine a list of ‗top restaurants in
town‘ published by the local restaurant owners association: Would the eateries of
non-members be included? Some less reputable newspapers and magazines do
favorable features stories on establishments in their pages. Persuasion, even in
seemingly objective forms, is all around us.

29. 29
According to definition, ―Persuasion is a form of influence. It is the process
of guiding people toward the adoption of an idea, attitude, or action by rational and
symbolic (though not only logical) means. It is a problem-solving strategy and
relies on ―appeals‖ rather than force‖. Dictionary.com site describes the verb
‗persuade‘ as to induce to believe by appealing to reason or understanding;
convince; a symbolic process in which communicators try to convince other people
to change their attitudes or behaviors regarding an issue through the transmission
of a message in an atmosphere of free choice. Put simply, persuasion is
convincing another person of your conclusions. You want to agree with you, even
champion your cause. The key elements of this definition of persuasion are that:
Persuasion is symbolic, utilizing words, images, sounds, etc
It involves a deliberate attempt to influence others.
Self-persuasion is key. People are not coerced; they are instead free to choose.
Methods of transmitting persuasive messages can occur in a variety of ways,
including verbally and nonverbally via television, radio, Internet or face-to-face
communication. [15, pp.49-78]
Persuasion of the type required in many college and university courses is
similar to these forms of persuasion, but is more forceful, more argumentative.
Tailored definitions, example and classification categories, and carefully chosen
cause/effect relationships are common developmental methods used in persuasive
arguments.
When describing serious writing, the word ‗argument‘ does not mean ‗verbal
disagreement‘ but rather the logical steps or reasons given in support of a position
or a series of statements or ideas in an essay or a discussion. In formal writing and
in oral presentations in law courts, in scientific and medical seminars, and in
formal business meetings, a special discipline is imposed on discussions. The
discipline is the discipline of argument or argumentation, and its purpose is to
discover the truth or at least the closest possible approximation to the truth.

30. 30
In Western cultures, argumentation has been heavily influenced by the
classical rhetorical tradition of ancient Greece and Rome. Thus, even today
freshman English students may study the logic of the Greek philosopher Aristotle,
who lived over 2000 years ago. However, whether an argument follows the strict
classical rule or whether it is more modern and casual, its goal is to use language to
persuade readers to a particular point of view.
One may find the concept of argument-to-discover-the-truth very similar to
what is practiced in different cultures, and one may think it alien and peculiar. The
Western tradition underlies the legal, political, and social systems of a great
number of European-influenced countries, and especially the US. The idea goes
back, in part, to ‗trial by combat‘, the practice of allowing medieval knights to
literally fight in defence of their positions, with God and fate determining the
winner. Argument-to-discover-truth also reflects the capitalist notion of the
‗marketplace of ideas‘, where competing theories and philosophies are tested in an
open ‗market‘ to see which will be ‗bought‘ and which will be left ‗bankrupt‘ and
failed. Presumably, this testing by a wide variety of ‗consumers‘ allows the
strongest and most promising ideas to survive and succeed, although whether this
is always true is a good question. What is certain is that the practice is highly
culture-bound, determined by Western tradition and history.
From the point of view of the individual student writer, the importance of
understanding ‗argument-to-discover-truth‘ lies in accepting the role of advocate
and forceful defender of a position. In many cultures, especially those influenced
by Confucian and other Asian traditions, the role of aggressive advocate may seem
rude and egotistical, the placing of individual interests before those of the group.
The acceptance of such a role is sometimes psychologically painful for students
from cultures that stress cooperation and group satisfaction. In fact, even
Americans sometimes become upset with lawyers who defend unpopular positions;
therefore, it is worth repeating the rules of the game. A person presenting an
argumentative position, whether that position is freely chosen or assigned, is
supposed to argue as forcefully and as energetically as possible.

31. 31
Rhetorical modes are based on the ways human brains process information.
Choosing the one mode that matches your topic helps you organize your writing
and helps the reader process the information you want to discuss. Using key words
that emphasize the chosen mode helps reinforce your essay's coherence.
[19, pp.24-67]
What is Persuasive Writing?
The purpose of persuasive writing is to convince the reader to accept a
particular point of view or to take a specific action. If it is important to present
other sides of an issue, the writer does so, but in a way that makes his or her
position clear. The unmistakable purpose of this type of writing is to convince the
reader of something. In well-written persuasion, the topic or issue is clearly stated
and elaborated as necessary to indicate understanding and conviction on the part of
the writer. [60]
Persuasive writers use persuasion to make people conform to their ideas that
he or she presents in his work. To write persuasively, first of all the writer needs to
have an argument. The argument has to be one-sided and the other side of the
argument or the opposite answer is disregarded, but another fact is that persuasive
writing is never related to the pros and cons of the topic, but general facts related to
its factuality. According to sources, ―It can‘t be a fact. If you were to choose as
your topic, ―Vipers are dangerous,‖ you wouldn‘t have to persuade anyone of that.
However, if your topic was, ―Vipers should be eliminated from the animal
kingdom,‖ then you would have presented an opinion that could be debated. Your
persuasive work/essay will focus on only one side–your chosen side–of the
argument. This will not be a pros-and-cons essay. Also, it won‘t be a personal
opinion essay. You must be prepared to back up your logic with evidence collected
in research that supports your position‖. [74]
Persuasive writing moves the reader to take an action or to form or change
an opinion. This type of writing is assessed for three reasons:

32. 32
1) it requires thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation;
2) it requires writers to choose from a variety of situations and to take a
stand; and 3) it is a skill frequently used in school and the workplace.
Persuasive writing has several functions: to state and support a position,
opinion or issue; to defend, refute or argue. A persuasive writing chart is presented
in the Appendix 1.
Early rhetoricians dealt with persuasive writing and oration. Cicero most
notably defined persuasive writing as the grand style in his work ‗Orator‘. Cicero
stated, ―This eloquence has power to sway man‘s mind and move them in every
possible way‖. He also stated, however, that the most effective orator, or in this
case, writer, uses a combination of the plain, middle, and this grand style to suit the
context.
2.1Using Rhetorical Strategies for Persuasion
Aristotle defines the rhetorician as someone who is always able to see what
is persuasive. Correspondingly, rhetoric is defined as the art of discovering, the
ability to see what is possibly persuasive in every given case. This is not to say that
the rhetorician will be able to convince under all circumstances. Rather he is in a
situation similar to that of the physician: the latter has a complete grasp of his art
only if he neglects nothing that might heal his patient, though he is not able to heal
every patient. Similarly, the rhetorician has a complete grasp of his method, if he
discovers the available means of persuasion, though he is not able to
convince everybody.
There are three types of rhetorical appeals, or persuasive strategies, used in
arguments to support claims and respond to opposing arguments. A good argument
will generally use a combination of all three appeals to make its case.

33. 33
✦ Logos
Logos or the appeal to reason relies on logic or reason. Logos often depends
on the use of inductive or deductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning takes a specific representative case or facts and then
draws generalizations or conclusions from them. Inductive reasoning must be
based on a sufficient amount of reliable evidence. In other words, the facts you
draw on must fairly represent the larger situation or population.
Example: Fair trade agreements have raised the quality of life for coffee
producers, so fair trade agreements could be used to help other farmers as well.
In this example the specific case of fair trade agreements with coffee producers is
being used as the starting point for the claim. Because these agreements have
worked the author concludes that it could work for other farmers as well.
Deductive reasoning begins with a generalization and then applies it to a
specific case. The generalization you start with must have been based on a
sufficient amount of reliable evidence.
Example: Genetically modified seeds have caused poverty, hunger, and a
decline in bio-diversity everywhere they have been introduced, so there is no
reason the same thing will not occur when genetically modified corn seeds are
introduced in Mexico.
In this example the author starts with a large claim, that genetically modified seeds
have been problematic everywhere, and from this draws the more localized or
specific conclusion that Mexico will be affected in the same way.
Logic is a formal system of analysis that helps writers invent, demonstrate,
and prove arguments. It works by testing propositions against one another to
determine their accuracy. People often think they are using logic when they avoid
emotion or make arguments based on their common sense, such as "Everyone

34. 34
should look out for their own self interests" or "People have the right to be free."
However, unemotional or common sense statements are not always equivalent to
logical statements. To be logical, a proposition must be tested within a logical
sequence. Winkler & McCuen said that ‗your argument is logical when you can
demonstrate that anyone using the same reasoning process and the same evidence
must inevitably come to the same conclusion.‖
The most famous logical sequence, called the syllogism, was developed by
the Greek philosopher Aristotle. His most famous syllogism is:
Premise 1: All men are mortal.
Premise 2: Socrates is a man.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
In this sequence, premise 2 is tested against premise 1 to reach the logical
conclusion. Within this system, if both premises are considered valid, there is no
other logical conclusion than determining that Socrates is a mortal.
Logic is a very effective tool for persuading an audience about the accuracy
of an argument. However, people are not always persuaded by logic. Sometimes
audiences are not persuaded because they have used values or emotions instead of
logic to reach conclusions. But just as often, audiences have reached a different
logical conclusion by using different premises. Therefore, arguments must often
spend as much time convincing audiences of the legitimacy of the premises as the
legitimacy of the conclusions.
For instance, assume a writer was using the following logic to convince an
audience to adopt a smaller government:
Premise 1: The government that governs least, governs best.
Premise 2: The government I am proposing does very little governing.
Conclusion: Therefore, the government I am proposing is best.

35. 35
Some members of the audience may be persuaded by this logic. However,
other members of the audience may follow this logic instead:
Premise 1: The government that governs best, governs most.
Premise 2: The government proposed by the speaker does very little governing.
Conclusion: Therefore, the government proposed by the speaker is bad.
Because they adhere to a different logical sequence, these members of the
audience will not be persuaded to change their minds logically until they are
persuaded to different values through other means besides logic.
It is important to remember that logic is only one aspect of a successful
argument. Non-logical arguments, statements that cannot be logically proven or
disproved, are important in argumentative writing, such as appeals to emotions or
values. Illogical arguments, on the other hand, are false and must be avoided.
Understanding how to create logical syllogisms does not automatically mean
that writers understand how to use logic to build an argument. Crafting a logical
sequence into a written argument can be a very difficult task. Don't assume that an
audience will easily follow the logic that seems clear to you. When converting
logical syllogisms into written arguments, remember to:
lay out each premise clearly;
provide evidence for each premise;
draw a clear connection to the conclusion.
Supposing a writer was crafting an editorial to argue against using taxpayer
dollars for the construction of a new stadium in the town of Mill Creek. The
author's logic may look like this:
Premise 1: Projects funded by taxpayer dollars should benefit a majority of the
public.
Premise 2: The proposed stadium construction benefits very few members of the

36. 36
public.
Conclusion: Therefore, the stadium construction should not be funded by taxpayer
dollars.
This is a logical conclusion, but without elaboration it may not persuade the
writer's opposition, or even people on the fence. Therefore, the writer will want to
expand her argument like this:
Historically, Mill Creek has only funded public projects that benefit the
population as a whole. Recent initiatives to build a light rail system and a
new courthouse were approved because of their importance to the city. Last
election, Mayor West reaffirmed this commitment in his inauguration speech
by promising "I am determined to return public funds to the public." This is
a sound commitment and a worthy pledge.
However, the new initiative to construct a stadium for the local baseball
team, the Bears, does not follow this commitment. While baseball is an
enjoyable pastime, it does not receive enough public support to justify
spending $210 million in public funds for an improved stadium. Attendance
in the past five years has been declining, and last year only an average of
400 people attended each home game, meaning that less than 1% of the
population attends the stadium. The Bears have a dismal record at 0-43
which generates little public interest in the team.
The population of Mill Creek is plagued by many problems that affect the
majority of the public, including its decrepit high school and decaying water
filtration system. Based on declining attendance and interest, a new Bears
stadium is not one of those needs, so the project should not be publicly
funded. Funding this project would violate the mayor's commitment to use
public money for the public.
Notice that the piece uses each paragraph to focus on one premise of the syllogism
(this is not a hard and fast rule, especially since complex arguments require far

37. 37
more than three premises and paragraphs to develop). Concrete evidence for both
premises is provided. The conclusion is specifically stated as following from those
premises.
Consider this example, where a writer wants to argue that the state minimum
wage should be increased. The writer does not follow the guidelines above when
making his argument.
It is obvious to anyone thinking logically that minimum wage should be
increased. The current minimum wage is an insult and is unfair to the people
who receive it. The fact that the last proposed minimum wage increase was
denied is proof that the government of this state is crooked and corrupt. The
only way for them to prove otherwise is to raise minimum wage
immediately.
The paragraph does not build a logical argument for several reasons. First, it
assumes that anyone thinking logically will already agree with the author, which is
clearly untrue. If that were the case, the minimum wage increase would have
already occurred. Secondly, the argument does not follow a logical structure. There
is no development of premises which lead to a conclusion. Thirdly, the author
provides no evidence for the claims made.
In order to develop a logical argument, the author first needs to determine
the logic behind his own argument. It is likely that the writer did not consider this
before writing, which demonstrates that arguments which could be logical are not
automatically logical. They must be made logical by careful arrangement.
The writer could choose several different logical approaches to defend this point,
such as a syllogism like this:
Premise 1: Minimum wage should match the cost of living in society.
Premise 2: The current minimum wage does not match the cost of living in

38. 38
society.
Conclusion: Therefore, minimum wage should be increased.
Once the syllogism has been determined, the author needs to elaborate each step in
writing that provides evidence for the premises:
The purpose of minimum wage is to ensure that workers can provide basic
amenities to themselves and their families. A report in the Journal of
Economic Studies indicated that workers cannot live above the poverty line
when minimum wage is not proportionate with the cost of living. It is
beneficial to society and individuals for a minimum wage to match living
costs.
Unfortunately, our state's minimum wage no longer reflects an increasing
cost of living. When the minimum wage was last set at $5.85, the yearly
salary of $12,168 guaranteed by this wage was already below the poverty
line. Years later, after inflation has consistently raised the cost of living,
workers earning minimum wage must struggle to support a family, often
taking 2 or 3 jobs just to make ends meet. 35% of our state's poor population
is made up of people with full time minimum wage jobs.
In order to remedy this problem and support the workers of this state,
minimum wage must be increased. A modest increase could help alleviate
the burden placed on the many residents who work too hard for too little just
to make ends meet.
This piece explicitly states each logical premise in order, allowing them to build to
their conclusion. Evidence is provided for each premise, and the conclusion is
closely related to the premises and evidence. Notice, however, that even though
this argument is logical, it is not irrefutable. An opponent with a different
perspective and logical premises could challenge this argument. [28, pp.74-98]

39. 39
Example of logos:
‗Let us begin with a simple proposition: What democracy requires is public
debate, not information. Of course it needs information too, but the kind of
information it needs can be generated only by vigorous popular debate. We
do not know what we need to know until we ask the right questions, and we
can identify the right questions only by subjecting our ideas about the world
to the test of public controversy. Information, usually seen as the
precondition of debate, is better understood as its by product. When we get
into arguments that focus and fully engage our attention, we become avid
seekers of relevant information. Otherwise, we take in information passively
– if we take it in at all.‘
Christopher Lasch, ‗The Lost Art of Political Argument‘
✦Ethos
Ethos or the ethical appeal is based on the character, credibility, or reliability of
the writer. There are many ways to establish good character and credibility as an
author:
Use only credible, reliable sources to build your argument and cite those
sources properly.
Respect the reader by stating the opposing position accurately.
Establish common ground with your audience. Most of the time, this can be
done by acknowledging values and beliefs shared by those on both sides of
the argument.
If appropriate for the assignment, disclose why you are interested in this
topic or what personal experiences you have had with the topic.
Organize your argument in a logical, easy to follow manner. You can use a
simple pattern such as chronological order, most general to most detailed
example, earliest to most recent example, etc.

40. 40
Proofread the argument. Too many careless grammar mistakes cast doubt on
your character as a writer.
According to Aristotle, writers can invent a character suitable to an occasion--
this is invented ethos. However, if writers are fortunate enough to enjoy a good
reputation in the community, they can use it as an ethical proof--this is situated
ethos. [11, pp. 18-34]
The status of ethos in the hierarchy of rhetorical principles has fluctuated as
rhetoricians in different eras have tended to define rhetoric in terms of either
idealistic aims or pragmatic skills. For Plato the reality of the speaker's virtue is
presented as a prerequisite to effective speaking. In contrast,
Aristotle's Rhetoric presents rhetoric as a strategic art which facilitates decisions in
civil matters and accepts the appearance of goodness as sufficient to inspire
conviction in hearers. The contrasting views of Cicero and Quintilian about the
aims of rhetoric and the function of ethos are reminiscent of Plato's and Aristotle's
differences of opinion about whether or not moral virtue in the speaker is intrinsic
and prerequisite or selected and strategically presented. [10, pp.28-32]
If Aristotle's study of pathos is a psychology of emotion, then his treatment
of ethos amounts to sociology of character. It is not simply a how-to guide to
establishing one's credibility with an audience, but rather it is a careful study of
what Athenians consider to be the qualities of a trustworthy individual. [21, p.45]
Some types of oratory may rely more heavily on one type of proof than another.
Today, for example, we note that a great deal of advertising uses ethos extensively
through celebrity endorsements, but it might not use pathos. It is clear from
Aristotle's discussion in Rhetoric, however, that, overall, the three proofs work in
conjunction to persuade. Moreover, it is equally clear that ethical character is the
lynch pin that holds everything together. As Aristotle stated, 'moral character …
constitutes the most effective means of proof'. An audience is just not likely to

41. 41
respond positively to a speaker of bad character: His or her statement
of premises will be met with skepticism; he or she will find it difficult to rouse the
emotions appropriate to the situation; and the quality of the speech itself will be
viewed negatively. [49, pp.22-46]
Fundamental to the Aristotelian concept of ethos is the ethical principle of
voluntary choice: the speaker's intelligence, character, and qualities comprehended
by good will are evidenced through invention, style, delivery, and likewise
incorporated in the arrangement of the speech. Ethos is primarily developed by
Aristotle as a function of rhetorical invention; secondarily, through style and
delivery. [61]
The appeal of our good character can occur on one or more of the following
levels in any given argument:
 Are you a reasonable person? (That is, are you willing to listen, compromise,
concede points?)
 Are you authoritative? (Are you experienced and/or knowledgeable in the field
you are arguing in?)
 Are you an ethical/moral person (Is what you're arguing for ethically
sound/morally right)
 Are you concerned for the well-being of your audience? (To what extent will
you benefit as a result of arguing from your particular position?)
The ethical appeal is based on the audience's perception of the speaker.
Therefore, the audience must trust the speaker in order to accept the arguments.
Don't overlook ethical appeal, as it can be the most effective of the three.
Example of ethos:
If, in my low moments, in word, deed or attitude, through some error of
temper, taste, or tone, I have caused anyone discomfort, created pain, or
revived someone's fears, that was not my truest self. If there were occasions

42. 42
when my grape turned into a raisin and my joy bell lost its resonance, please
forgive me. Charge it to my head and not to my heart. My head - so limited
in its finitude; my heart, which is boundless in its love for the human family.
I am not a perfect servant. I am a public servant doing my best against the
odds." (Jesse Jackson, Democratic National Convention
Keynote Address, 1984)
✦Pathos
Pathos, or emotional appeal, appeals to an audience's needs, values, and
emotional sensibilities.
Argument emphasizes reason, but used properly there is often a place for
emotion as well. Emotional appeals can use sources such as interviews and
individual stories to paint a more legitimate and moving picture of reality or
illuminate the truth. For example, telling the story of a single child who has been
abused may make for a more persuasive argument than simply the number of
children abused each year because it would give a human face to the numbers.
The logical appeal is certainly an extremely persuasive tool. However, our
human nature also lets us be influenced by our emotions. Emotions range from
mild to intense; some, such as well-being, are gentle attitudes and outlooks, while
others, such as sudden fury, are so intense that they overwhelm rational
thought. Images are particularly effective in arousing emotions, whether those
images are visual and direct as sensations, or cognitive and indirect as memory or
imagination, and part of a writer's task is to associate the subject with such images.
[24, pp.128-136]
Example (to my father who smokes): "I remember when Grandma died of
lung cancer. It was the first time I had ever seen you cry Dad. I remember that you
also made me promise not to start smoking." You could also offer vivid examples

43. 43
in support of your argument. Use language and images that are emotionally
charged:
 You might detail the pain of going through chemo therapy.
 You could use Xrays of diseased lungs, or photos of cancerous gums.
Be careful, however, that when you use emotional appeal, you use it
"legitimately." James D. Lester states that ―raw emotion cannot win the day
against opponents who demand factual evidence, yet the dull recitation of
statistical facts may be meaningless unless you motivate readers and get them
involved.‖ You should not use it as a substitute for logical and/or ethical appeals.
Don't use emotional appeals to draw on stereotypes or manipulate our emotional
fears. Don't use emotional appeal to get an automatic, knee-jerk reaction from
someone. If you use emotionally charged language or examples simply to upset or
anger an audience, you are using emotion illegitimately. Your use of emotional
appeal shouldn't oversimplify a complicated issue. [65]
"The man who can carry the judge with him, and put him in whatever frame
of mind he wishes, whose words move men to tears or anger, has always been a
rare creature. Yet this is what dominates the courts, this is the eloquence that reigns
supreme. . . . Where force has to be brought to bear on the judges' feelings and
their minds distracted from the truth, there the orator's true work begins." taken
from Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, c. 95 A.D.
Hillary Clinton used a moment of brilliantly staged emotion to win the New
Hampshire Democratic primary. As she answered questions in a diner on the
morning before the election, Mrs. Clinton's voice began to waver and crack when
she said: 'It's not easy. This is very personal for me.' Emotions can be an
electoral trump card, especially if one can show them as Mrs. Clinton did, without
tears. The key is to appear stirred without appearing weak. [62]

44. 44
It is perilous to announce to an audience that we are going to play on the
emotions. As soon as we apprise an audience of such an intention, we jeopardize, if
we do not entirely destroy, the effectiveness of the emotional appeal. It is not so
with appeals to the understanding. [57]
A brilliant young woman was asked once to support her argument in favor
of social welfare. She named the most powerful source imaginable: the look in a
mother's face when she cannot feed her children. Can you look that hungry child in
the eyes? See the blood on his feet from working barefoot in the cotton fields. Or
do you ask his baby sister with her belly swollen from hunger if she cares about
her daddy's work ethics?
Only use an emotional appeal if it truly supports the claim you are making,
not as a way to distract from the real issues of debate. An argument should never
use emotion to misrepresent the topic or frighten people.
Emotional and ethical appeals prompt your audience to care about an issue
on more than an intellectual level. As with introductions, conclusions are an
excellent place to do this because it reminds your audience that your position is not
merely an academic one, but one that has consequences for real people.
Concluding on emotional and ethical grounds provides an opportunity to
strengthen the appeal of you position.
For example:
The safety of our society is directly influenced by the correct handling of our
household hazardous waste. Everyone uses dangerous chemicals every day
and the dangers are astounding when they aren't disposed of in a proper and
professional manner. In an age of many chemicals, we must be careful not to
put each other, our pets, and our environment in harm's way: We do not need
sanitation workers losing their lives or are pets poisoned. In a country with a
population the size of the United States, it is necessary that every
homeowner ensure a healthy environment for everyone-plants and animals
included-by taking precautions when disposing of hazardous waste. It is the

45. 45
job of every responsible citizen to ensure that others are not put at risk when
disposing of chemicals. [64]
Examples of pathos:
"This is the lesson: Never give in. Never give in. Never, never, never, never-
-in nothing, great or small, large or petty--never give in, except to
convictions of honor and good sense. Never yield to force. Never yield to the
apparently overwhelming might of the enemy. We stood all alone a year ago,
and to many countries it seemed that our account was closed, we were
finished. All this tradition of ours, our songs, our School history, this part of
the history of this country, were gone and finished and liquidated. Very
different is the mood today. Britain, other nations thought, had drawn a
sponge across her slate. But instead our country stood in the gap. There was
no flinching and no thought of giving in; and by what seemed almost a
miracle to those outside these Islands, though we ourselves never doubted it,
we now find ourselves in a position where I say that we can be sure that we
have only to persevere to conquer."
Below are three quotes from President Clinton's 1996 State of the Union speech
to consider as an example which includes all three types of appeals. Here Clinton
combines all of the available means of persuasion for his given thesis:
Ethical appeal (ethos)
"Before I go on, I would like to take just a moment to thank my own family,
and to thank the person who has taught me more than anyone else over 25
years about the importance of families and children — a wonderful wife, a
magnificent mother and a great First Lady. Thank you, Hillary" — showing
himself to be a sensitive family man;
Emotional appeal (pathos)

46. 46
"I have heard Mrs. Gore say that it's hard to be a parent today, but it's even
harder to be a child" — reminding listeners of the challenges children face;
and
Rational appeal (logos)
"To the media, I say you should create movies and CDs and television
shows you'd want your own children and grandchildren to enjoy. I call on
Congress to pass the requirement for a V-chip in TV sets so that parents can
screen out programs they believe are inappropriate for their children. When
parents control what their young children see, that is not censorship; that is
enabling parents to assume more personal responsibility for their children's
upbringing. And I urge them to do it."
Those three examples above appeared early in the address. To get a better
sense of how Clinton used those appeals, look at the whole passage from which
those examples were drawn:
"Our first challenge is to cherish our children and strengthen America's families.
Family is the foundation of American life. If we have stronger families, we will
have a stronger America. Before I go on, I would like to take just a moment to
thank my own family, and to thank the person who has taught me more than
anyone else over 25 years about the importance of families and children — a
wonderful wife, a magnificent mother and a great First Lady. Thank you, Hillary.
All strong families begin with taking more responsibility for our children. I have
heard Mrs. Gore say that it's hard to be a parent today, but it's even harder to be a
child. So all of us, not just as parents, but all of us in our other roles — our media,
our schools, our teachers, our communities, our churches and synagogues, our
businesses, our governments — all of us have a responsibility to help our children
to make it and to make the most of their lives and their God-given capacities.

47. 47
To the media, I say you should create movies and CDs and television shows you'd
want your own children and grandchildren to enjoy. I call on Congress to pass the
requirement for a V-chip in TV sets so that parents can screen out programs they
believe are inappropriate for their children. When parents control what their
young children see, that is not censorship; that is enabling parents to assume more
personal responsibility for their children's upbringing. And I urge them to do it.
The V-chip requirement is part of the important telecommunications bill now
pending in this Congress. It has bipartisan support, and I urge you to pass it now.
To make the V-chip work, I challenge the broadcast industry to do what movies
have done — to identify your programming in ways that help parents to protect
their children. And I invite the leaders of major media corporations in the
entertainment industry to come to the White House next month to work with us in
a positive way on concrete ways to improve what our children see on television. I
am ready to work with you." [63]
2.2 Logical Fallacies
Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of
your argument. Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points,
and are often identified because they lack evidence that supports their claim. Avoid
these common fallacies in your own arguments and watch for them in the
arguments of others.
Slippery slope
This is a conclusion based on the premise that if A happens, then eventually
through a series of small steps, through B, C,..., X, Y, Z will happen, too, basically
equating A and Z. So, if we don't want Z to occur A must not be allowed to occur
either.

48. 48
Example: If we ban Hummers because they are bad for the environment
eventually the government will ban all cars, so we should not ban Hummers.
In this example the author is equating banning Hummers with banning all
cars, which is not the same thing.
Hasty Generalization
This is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence. In other words,
you are rushing to a conclusion before you have all the relevant facts.
Example: Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a
boring course.
In this example the author is basing their evaluation of the entire course on
only one class, and on the first day which is notoriously boring and full of
housekeeping tasks for most courses. To make a fair and reasonable evaluation the
author must attend several classes, and possibly even examine the textbook, talk to
the professor, or talk to others who have previously finished the course in order to
have sufficient evidence to base a conclusion on.
Post hoc ergo propter hoc
This is a conclusion that assumes that if 'A' occurred after 'B' then 'B' must
have caused 'A.'
Example: I drank bottled water and now I am sick, so the water must have
made me sick.
In this example the author assumes that if one event chronologically follows
another the first event must have caused the second. But the illness could have
been caused by the burrito the night before, a flu bug that had been working on the
body for days, or a chemical spill across campus. There is no reason, without more
evidence, to assume the water caused the person to be sick.

49. 49
Genetic Fallacy
A conclusion is based on an argument that the origins of a person, idea,
institute, or theory determine its character, nature, or worth.
Example: The Volkswagen Beetle is an evil car because it was originally
designed by Hitler's army.
In this example the author is equating the character of a car with the
character of the people who built the car.
Begging the Claim
The conclusion that the writer should prove is validated within the claim.
Example: Filthy and polluting coal should be banned.
Arguing that coal pollutes the earth and thus should be banned would be
logical. But the very conclusion that should be proved, that coal causes enough
pollution to warrant banning its use, is already assumed in the claim by referring to
it as "filthy and polluting." [29, pp.165-176]
Circular Argument
This restates the argument rather than actually proving it.
Example: George Bush is a good communicator because he speaks
effectively.
In this example the conclusion that Bush is a "good communicator" and the
evidence used to prove it "he speaks effectively" are basically the same idea.
Specific evidence such as using everyday language, breaking down complex
problems, or illustrating his points with humorous stories would be needed to
prove either half of the sentence.

50. 50
Either/or
This is a conclusion that oversimplifies the argument by reducing it to only
two sides or choices.
Example: We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth.
In this example where two choices are presented as the only options, yet the
author ignores a range of choices in between such as developing cleaner
technology, car sharing systems for necessities and emergencies, or better
community planning to discourage daily driving.
Ad hominem
This is an attack on the character of a person rather than their opinions or
arguments.
Example: Green Peace's strategies aren't effective because they are all dirty,
lazy hippies.
In this example the author doesn't even name particular strategies Green
Peace has suggested, much less evaluate those strategies on their merits. Instead,
the author attacks the characters of the individuals in the group.
Ad populum
This is an emotional appeal that speaks to positive (such as patriotism,
religion, democracy) or negative (such as terrorism or fascism) concepts rather
than the real issue at hand.
Example: If you were a true American you would support the rights of
people to choose whatever vehicle they want.
In this example the author equates being a "true American," a concept that
people want to be associated with, particularly in a time of war, with allowing

51. 51
people to buy any vehicle they want even though there is no inherent connection
between the two.
Red Herring
This is a diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues, often by avoiding
opposing arguments rather than addressing them.
Example: The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will
fishers do to support their families.
In this example the author switches the discussion away from the safety of
the food and talks instead about an economic issue, the livelihood of those catching
fish. While one issue may effect the other, it does not mean we should ignore
possible safety issues because of possible economic consequences to a few
individuals.
Straw Man
This move oversimplifies an opponent's viewpoint and then attacks that
hollow argument.
Example: People who don't support the proposed state minimum wage
increase hate the poor.
In this example, the author attributes the worst possible motive to an
opponent's position. In reality, however, the opposition probably has more
complex and sympathetic arguments to support their point. By not addressing those
arguments, the author is not treating the opposition with respect or refuting their
position.

52. 52
Moral Equivalence
This fallacy compares minor misdeeds with major atrocities.
Example: That parking attendant who gave me a ticket is as bad as Hitler.
In this example, the author is comparing the relatively harmless actions of a
person doing their job with the horrific actions of Hitler. This comparison is unfair
and inaccurate. [12, pp.227-286]
2.3 Types of Evidence
Evidence is the information that helps in the formation of a conclusion or
judgment. Whether we know it or not, we provide evidence in most of our
conversations – they‘re all the things we say to try and support our claims. For
example, when you leave a movie theater, turn to your friend, and say ―That movie
was awesome! Did you see those fight scenes?! Unreal!‖, you have just made a
claim and backed it up.
Evidence is required so as to support the claim made by the writer. The
evidence cannot be general statements but have to be valid with good sources.
Apart from evidence, persuasion needs to be sequential with one fact of the topic
leading to the other for the betterment of the reader, as this would help him or her
in understanding the topic as well as the claim. For example, if one is writing an
essay on the above mentioned statement that is, ―Vipers should be eliminated from
the animal kingdom,‖ the writer needs to begin by the dangers posed by the vipers
and then move on to numerical data as to how much disaster is caused by them and
then carry this argument forward.
The effectiveness of such arguments – whether they are persuasive or not –
depends on two main factors, the credibility of the evidence and the validity of the
argument itself, with ‗validity‘ meaning how well the argument is put together.
Most people think of ―evidence‖ as numbers and quotes from famous

53. 53
people. While those are valid types of evidence, there are more to choose from
than just statistics and quotes, though. Before you make a choice, review the
points you made and decide if your statements can be backed up by evidence.
Types of evidence include:
Facts - a powerful means of convincing, facts can come from your reading,
observation, or personal experience. Note: Do not confuse facts with truths. A
"truth" is an idea believed by many people, but it cannot be proven. Nancy R.
Comley writes that ―facts do not speak for themselves, nor do figures add up on
their own. Even the most vividly detailed printout requires someone to make sense
of the information it contains.‖
Statistics - these can provide excellent support. Be sure your statistics come
from responsible sources. Statistical evidence is the kind of data people tend to
look for first when trying to prove a point. That‘s not surprising when you
consider how prevalent it is in today‘s society. Remember those McDonald‘s
signs that said ―Over 1 billion served‖? How about those Trident chewing gum
commercials that say ―4 out of 5 dentists recommend chewing sugarless gum‖?
Every time you use numbers to support a main point, you‘re relying on statistical
evidence to carry your argument. [8, pp.83-95]
Quotes - direct quotes from leading experts that support your position are
invaluable.
Examples - Examples enhance your meaning and make your ideas concrete.
They are the proof. Sometimes making an argument can be strengthened by being
specific. If I tell you in class that not having insurance is a problem, this is a claim,
but does not have any evidence supporting it. I may then go on and describe that
people without insurance often delay going to the doctor, go to emergency rooms
for routine care instead of to clinics or doctors' offices, or go without care at all.
These last points are examples. The examples could further be strengthened by
statistics on how often uninsured people delay care, go to the emergency room, or
go without care. The information could be strengthened yet further by comparing
these statistics to similar statistics on people who have insurance. And so on.

54. 54
Expert Testimony – Testimonial evidence is another type of evidence that
is commonly turned to by people trying to prove a point. Commercials that use
spokespersons to testify about the quality of a company‘s product, lawyers who
rely on eye-witness accounts to win a case, and students who quote an authority in
their essays are all using testimonial evidence. You will probably run across
studies conducted by clinicians, economists, or other types of researchers. The
information they provide will be one of three types: facts, informed opinions, and
speculation. Factual information is incontrovertible; anyone could find the same
information. Informed opinions and speculation will be the interpretation that the
researcher applies to the information. For instance, a researcher might conclude
that treatment Y is cost-effective, based on a cost-effectiveness ratio of $50,000
per quality of life year saved. Another researcher might think that an appropriate
cut-off for "cost-effectiveness" is $10,000 per QUALY, and would disagree. The
conclusion that the treatment is cost-effective is an informed opinion. Speculation
is another form of interpretation. Often, the answers many economists get are
based on information from a select sample of individuals, let's say middle-age
women. Applying these results to another group of the population, for example,
elderly women, would call for "out-of-sample" predictions, and these are really just
speculation. Another potential problem is that predictions might be based on a
particular statistical technique and using a different method might give one
different predictions. I don't expect you to know all of these nuances in statistics,
but be aware that the conclusions you read in others' research are not hard-and-fast
rules. The first thing to do is to check the credentials of the expert. Check for
possible conflicts of interest (did a pharmaceutical company fund the research?) If
you find many different researchers coming to the same opinion, that lends greater
weight to the evidence.
Personal/anecdotal experience - Often dismissed as untrustworthy and
meaningless, anecdotal evidence is one of the more underutilized types of
evidence. Anecdote is evidence that is based on a person‘s observations of the
world. It can actually be very useful for disproving generalizations because all