An introduction to user personas as a \"tool for understanding\" users and audiences. This paper introduces the concept of personas, explains the benefits and applications of personas, and discusses some pitfalls to avoid when implementing personas into design and development processes. The paper was presented at the 2008 Korea Technical Communication Association symposium in Seoul, South Korea.

1. Making the Overcoming the Challenges of
Designing for Users
Connection: As Thomas Erickson explains, “Designers
know too much and they know too little.
Personas as a “Tool of Designers who know enough to incorporate
Understanding” for Product a technology into a product know too much
to understand how users will perceive it.
Designers and Information At the same time, designers know too
Developers little about the users’ lives to understand
how the product will mesh with their work
practices.” 1
Eddie Hollon
October 20, 2008
What Mr. Erickson describes is a typical
problem encountered in the design
With all the focus on users today, why are phase—a misunderstanding of the real
so many companies still failing to capture usage environments, motivations, and
their customers’ attention and deliver the preferences of users. Because designers
products and information that meet their often have a distorted or incomplete view of
needs and ignite their passions? Simply put, their users, they are more likely to design
too many efforts have resulted in designers products and information based on faulty
and developers projecting their own ideas assumptions. As a result, users are often
of what a user is, rather than taking the confronted with features that are counter-
necessary steps to understand who the intuitive, difficult to learn, hard to use in
product’s real customers are. particular environments, or integrated with
unnecessary or undesired functions.
And yet, a popular technique has existed for
more than two decades that can describe Design choices that fail to meet users’
who the customers are in a detailed context expectations stem from a common flaw in
that includes motivations, needs, desires, the development stage. That is, designers
habits, and behaviors, as well as the work from a set of assumptions about what
environmental pressures or situations that users want and need. Sometimes, these
affect perceptions about the usefulness assumptions are formed from user data
of a product or set of information. This collected by marketing and user research
technique—developing personas—allows efforts; however, design assumptions are
designers, planners, marketers, and others too often self-referential (reflecting the
to develop a more complete picture of a designer’s own ideas, rather than users’
customer as a flesh-and-blood person with ideas), because the user is poorly described
specific interests and goals. by limited demographic or statistical data.
In this paper, I introduce personas as a What is needed in the design environment,
tool for understanding customers and then, is a more robust and realistic way to
explain how personas can help companies describe users. Perhaps, as Gerry McGovern
develop a real understanding of what their asserts, designers need to move away from
customers need and want out of their the idea of a generic user altogether: “‛User’
products and information—regardless is a catchall and ultimately a mean-nothing
of whether the tool is used for design, word. It reflects a technology-centric,
planning, sales, or even recruiting. In rather than a people-centric, view of the
addition, I will describe how to construct Web. To call someone a user is largely
personas and how to put them to use in an meaningless…”2
organization.
Making the Connection: Personas as a “Tool of Understanding” for Product Designers and Information Developers 1
October 20, 2008

2. A Tool for Understanding will easily understand and immediately
To overcome these challenges, design use. Because market research is often
teams must confront the shortcomings overwhelming or quickly forgotten, personas
in their current practices and embrace and scenarios may be the best way to mine
techniques that will help them make more value from that research.”3 As a tool for
informed decisions. John Pruitt and Tamar understanding, personas help design teams
Adlin describe this focal shift in their book, make sense of user data and more fully
The Persona Lifecycle: Keeping People in understand the people who will utilize their
Mind Throughout Product Design: designs.
Customers that produce consumer
products must become user focused,
Centering Design Efforts around
in the sense that emergency rooms People
are “injury focused.” In an emergency Personas are “clearly defined, memorable
room, it is not enough to convey that representations of users that remain
a person is injured. Doctors need to conspicuous in the minds of those who
know the type of injury, the part of design and build products.”2 These
the body injured, the severity of the representations are often drawn from
injury and its effect on vital statistics, other types of user research, such as
and so on before they can identify the demographic and statistical data, but
critical cases and decide on a course personas are more than a collection of
of treatment. Similarly, it is no longer facts and figures. Coupled with photos
enough to proclaim that something of representative users and stories about
is being built for the user. We need usage situations, personas create a
much more information to make dynamic picture of users that can then fuel
difficult decisions that result in effective discussions about design choices.
products. 2
Personas Describe Real People
With this analogy, the authors point out
At the base of every organization is an
that design teams not only need more
attempt to satisfy a customer. Whether the
information, but they need more vital
customer is a retail shopper or a buyer for
information about their users’ behaviors,
another organization, they are all people.
tendencies, and desires. Because the design
Only through understanding how these
decisions are critical to the success of a
people function in their daily lives, what
product, accurate and detailed information
their needs are, and what is likely to gain
is of the utmost importance.
their interests, can organizations deliver
The solution—user personas—was described products and services that will meet or
and popularized by Alan Cooper in his exceed their expectations.
1999 book, The Inmates are Running the
Personas fill this need by describing real
Asylum. As he explained it, a user persona
people, rather than simply defining a
was a tool that allowed the design team
faceless group of users based on their
to understand a user as a flesh-and-
shared characteristics. As two usability
blood character with rich anecdotes and
engineers explain, “Contrasted with the
behavioral characteristics that affected the
demographic approach that focuses on
way he or she interacted with a product.
graphically representing age, race, and
Now, almost 20 years later, personas are ethnicities, the persona-based approach
still touted as one of the most valuable speaks directly to the life situations and
design tools available. As Angela Quail personalities of real users.”4 By getting
points out, “Personas are a tool to to the heart of these “life situations and
disseminate research in the form of fictional personalities,” personas provide the kind of
but accurate stories that our colleagues
Making the Connection: Personas as a “Tool of Understanding” for Product Designers and Information Developers 2
October 20, 2008

3. rich, multi-dimensional profile of a user that help focus design efforts by describing an
mere demographic data cannot. archetypal user that narrows the scope
of the project. In fact, many persona
Personas Tell Useful Stories proponents have pointed out that limiting
By incorporating rich, multi-faceted and shaping the design effort is one of the
information, personas help promote best ways to create products that effectively
story telling. Personas include anecdotal address the needs of your target user group
information, scenarios, and other pieces or audience:
of information that allow designers to
describe a user’s environment, behaviors, Personas are helpful because they are
and preferences through stories. These constraining. Personas clearly define
stories can enrich the design team’s who is and who is not the target user
understanding of a user in ways that no (or customer) for the product and
other set of data can replicate. In addition, thereby make some of the decisions
the stories provide other benefits in the for us… Every detail we include in our
development process, such as team personas limit the number of choices
building and communicating with high level we have to make. Personas define a
management. tight domain within which the product
needs to perform. Within that domain,
“Team members can sit around and swap personas free us to explore all of the
stories they’ve heard, noting similarities “marvelous possibilities” for the product
and differences, and discussing possible we are designing.2
interpretations… It seems to be something
that any member of a design team can The idea of constraint was one of the
participate in, regardless of whether original bases of Alan Cooper’s argument
they are trained in computer science, for introducing personas. Although it may
psychology, graphic design, or some other seem counterintuitive, practitioners have
discipline,” notes Angela Quail.3 The power since shown that designing for a single
of storytelling not only helps ground the user persona (or a limited set of personas)
design team around a common theme, but is much more productive than trying to
also allows everyone to participate in the design a product with an overabundance of
discussion, which leads to a broader, more options, which can often make users “feel
productive design session. more trapped, less happy, and less able to
make good decisions than they would if
Stories also help the design team relay they had fewer options.”2
their plans to people outside of the team.
Thomas Erickson points out that, “Design In addition, personas have the effect of
teams may need to defend the validity of helping design teams focus their discussions
their design in an effort to maintain their and debates around the idea of what is
funding, or to make the case for moving useful to the customer, rather than focusing
the design from a product investigation or on arguments that revolve around what a
research track to a product development designer may want to add to the product for
track. In both cases, many of the higher personal reasons. By clearly understanding
level managers…need to quickly understand who the designers are attempting to satisfy,
the gist of the design, why it makes sense, the design team will benefit from increased
why people will want to buy it. Stories excel efficiency and the end user will benefit from
at encapsulating this kind of information.”1 a more useful product.
Personas Help Focus Design Efforts Creating Personas
Many times, the problem that design and
Personas often contain fictional details and
development teams face is trying to meet
anecdotes, but much of the information
the needs of all users at once. Personas
used to make up a persona can be drawn
Making the Connection: Personas as a “Tool of Understanding” for Product Designers and Information Developers 3
October 20, 2008

4. from user research and factual data complete with photos, names, and quotes.
gathered by other departments within the Personas do not have to follow a set
organization, such as marketing, sales, formula; rather, they can be adapted to
customer service, and user experience. meet the needs and level of detail required
Creating a useful persona requires gathering by the project. However, each persona
factual information and marrying that data should contain enough data and detail to
with the scenarios, attitudes, and fictional facilitate discussion about how the product
details that bring the persona to life. or information can address the needs
represented by the persona.
Gathering Information
In the information gathering stage, any data The two images in Figure 2 show sample
about users is welcome. However, the focus personas created by a consulting agency
of this stage should revolve around the type for an online investing tool. Each persona
of information that will help the persona tell includes a personal profile with anecdotes,
a story about the target user. Alison Head demographic data (background), attributes
offers this advice: that describe the type of user, needs, and
scenarios that explain how this user might
Developing personas usually starts with interact with the product.
collecting some demographic data,
such as age, education, and job title. Crafting a persona is much like creating a
But the goal is to collect qualitative— character for a novel or screenplay. To avoid
not quantitative—information. a flat persona that conveys little useful
Interviewers need to gather stories, information, details must be added about
quotes, and anecdotes from interview the user’s life, including his or her habits,
subjects that pertain to their likes, dislikes, and so on. Persona guru Kim
environment and behaviors and reveal Goodwin describes how these personal
their attitudes, Web usage habits, and touches add life to a persona: “For example,
goals.5 if someone tends to be incredibly busy at
work, don’t just say he’s incredibly busy;
As Ms. Head suggests, the information instead, say that there’s a sandwich on his
gathering stage will definitely include desk that he’s been trying to find time to
an analysis of the current user research eat for three hours.”6
data held by an organization. However,
it should focus primarily on interviewing When building up a persona, the personal
and customer feedback that allow the user details not only breathe life into the
to provide emotive, free-form responses. character, but also set the stage for the
These techniques should incorporate open- all-important storytelling that will guide the
ended questions that prompt prospective or design process. These “actionable details”
current users to share their feelings, ideas, are what allow the design team to interact
and anecdotes. with the persona, describe how elements of
the design meet the persona’s needs, and
Whitney Quesenbery, a usability understand real-life usage scenarios.7
professional who lectures on the value
of personas, provides this checklist of
Putting Personas to Use
information to gather to help define
personas (Figure 1). This list illustrates that Personas tend to take on a life of their own
both statistical and qualitative information once they are put into use. In addition to
are important. helping focus design efforts, personas can
prompt dialogues about users at all levels of
Building a Representation of the User an organization. Over time, well-developed
In their finished form, personas are personas can even grow and may be
composite sketches of user archetypes, adapted for other purposes.
Making the Connection: Personas as a “Tool of Understanding” for Product Designers and Information Developers 4
October 20, 2008

5. Personal Characteristics Goals and Tasks
Demographics What
• Age • Most frequent tasks; most difficult; easiest
• Sex • Order and relationships
• Education level • Degree of freedom to choose tasks, and to work
• Income within a task
• Family composition Where
Personal Goals • Where, and in how many different places, do
they use the product
• Career or life hobbies
With Whom
• Hobbies or leisure activities
• People they work with
Job information or domain knowledge
• Information needed from, or given to, others
• Current position, previous positions or roles
When and Why
• Years in position, with company, in industry
• How often and under what circumstances
• Level of knowledge
• Frequency and duration of use
Web or Technology Experience
• What triggers the use
• Level of comfort
Motivations
• Similar products
Influencers or advisors
• When, where and how
• Collaborators or interferers
Attitude and Needs
• People who influence actions or give advice
Information needs
Decision factors
• Favorite ways to learn or teach
• Details of the context or reasons for actions
• Preferences for ways to get help
• People who influence actions or give advice
Attitudes
Barriers
• Patience and tolerance for problems
• What makes them change their plans?
• Proficiency or comfort with similar tools or
experiences • Dislikes or pet peeves
• Trust in company or systems • Level of tolerance for efficiency, effectiveness,
ease of learning
Expectations
• How do they describe “success”?
Figure 1: A Checklist of Information to Gather to Define Personas (from “Usability and Accessibility: User Research,
Design, and Evaluation”)11
Designing for a User Persona archetypes who are important for the
When putting a persona to use in a design design but not as ‘high maintenance’ as the
process, it is important to remember that primary persona.”5
the purpose of the persona is to limit and
focus efforts to meet key objectives. To Once a primary persona has been selected,
achieve this purpose, a limited number of the design team is free to discuss how this
personas should be used to represent target user archetype defines the requirements
users and one persona in particular should for the product, interface, or information
be the focus of the design and development it is developing. Teams who focus on a
process. limited number of personas are more likely
to focus on the issues that are relevant
Alison Head explains that “There is a to the project, rather than quibbling
definite pecking order. One persona needs over unnecessary features or becoming
to become the primary persona, or the entangled in conceptual debates. In the
primary focus of the design. The other end, the focus on the primary persona (or
key personas are secondary personas,
Making the Connection: Personas as a “Tool of Understanding” for Product Designers and Information Developers 5
October 20, 2008

6. Figure 2: Razorfish Personas (from Bobulate.com)12
a small set of personas) can increase the personas increases the likelihood that
overall usefulness of the product: many people will love your product.2
From the very beginning of a product In addition, the stories that arise from these
development cycle, personas can be discussions about the user personas can
there to provide data in the form of spark a variety of dialogues about the needs
the “voice” of the user, which can to target users, including discussions by
reduce feature debates and refocus high-level managers and other departments
projects. In this regard, personas offer in the organization. Rather than trying
a consistent target-audience vision. to validate design decisions based on
Perhaps this is why, paradoxically, impersonal statistical details, design teams
designing for just a few well-defined can use stories to illustrate how target users
will interact with the product.
Making the Connection: Personas as a “Tool of Understanding” for Product Designers and Information Developers 6
October 20, 2008

7. Growing Personas ever read a book or watched a movie with
John Pruitt and Tamara Adlin advocate the an enormous cast of characters, you may
extended use of personas when they write, have found it hard to remember who was
“We believe that successful personas and related to whom, who said what, and so on.
persona efforts are built progressively. Just You probably didn’t feel like you knew any
as we get to know people in our lives, we of the characters very well.”
must get to know personas (and the data
they contain) by developing a relationship What Mr. Spool warns against is one of the
with them.”2 problems that personas are intended to
overcome—that is, the attempt to solve all
As they suggest, personas can have the needs of every type of user imaginable.
additional utility outside of the original When designers take this approach, the
discussions about design. In fact, personas usual result is a product that does not
that are used over time tend to become meet the needs of anyone in particular. By
more robust and can grow to portray a user focusing on too many personas, designers
archetype in greater detail. can end up creating products for edge
cases (eventualities that could happen,
In order to “grow” a persona, additional but probably won’t) and trying to satisfy
user research and data must be “fed” to the product reviewers or internal personnel
persona. Rather than seeing the persona rather than end users.9
as a static tool with a limited shelf life,
the persona must be viewed as something To avoid reintroducing this mentality in
that evolves in relation to the attention it the development process, Tina Calabria
is given. By incorporating new information suggests a limit for the number of personas:
learned from usability testing and “Four or five personas work as effective
interviews, organizations may find that their design tools, whilst over ten personas may
personas can become even more useful introduce that same confusion as a large
tools for understanding users.8 user requirements document.”10
Each design team will have to determine the
Avoiding Common Pitfalls ideal number of personas for a particular
Despite the benefits that personas can project, but the basic rule of thumb—less is
offer, they must be used according to more—should be the guiding principle.
a few sensible guidelines. For one, the
set of personas must be fairly limited in Personas are Not About You
order to focus the design efforts. Also, When developing and implementing
personas must be created objectively to personas, design teams must also avoid
ensure that they represent actual users and the tendency to distort the persona with
are not merely another reflection of the their own ideas. Cooper and Reimann
assumptions and ideas of people close to propose that properly crafted personas help
the project. eliminate some common design issues, such
as:
Too Many Personas is a Crowd
As I mentioned previously, design teams • The elastic user—that is, the
should choose a primary persona and definition of the user in the mind
focus their efforts on meeting the needs of the designer, developer, or
of that archetype. In some cases, it will other project team member that
be necessary to have additional personas allows the member to design the
that represent different types of users, interface and claim he is serving
but a large set of personas can be highly the user.
problematic. Jared Spool explains this
problem with a fitting analogy: “If you’ve • Self-referential design involves
Making the Connection: Personas as a “Tool of Understanding” for Product Designers and Information Developers 7
October 20, 2008

8. designers or developers projecting affect product design. These stories provide
their ideas onto the project and a common language and allow people from
claiming that this is what the all backgrounds to join the discussions
user wants. In other words, the about users. Because the stories are
designer or developer thinks he is engaging, they can also be used to validate
a typical user.9 design decisions for upper-level managers
and other personnel who are outside of the
Both of these cases stem from the same design and development team.
problem, which is a projection of the
designer’s ideas onto the user. Although Despite the benefits offered by personas,
some details about the user may be organizations must be cautious to avoid
fictional, it is important to remember that tainting the persona by projecting their
even these fictional details should represent own ideas onto the user. However, by
actual users if the design effort is to remaining true to the user data and limiting
successfully meet the expectations of the the number of personas involved in a
target audience. By tainting the persona project, organizations will benefit from more
with “self-referential” information, the efficient and more fruitful discussions about
design team not only jeopardizes the design how to meet the needs of their customers.
effort, but undermines the efforts of those
who performed research, gathered data,
and compiled information to develop the References
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October 20, 2008