COPPER AND TIN FROM AMERICA

For Fred C. Rydholm, author of the book “Michigan Copper, The Untold Story”

COPPER AND TIN FROM AMERICA

1. INTRODUCTION
2. COPPER AND TIN FROM THE WEST
3. AMOUNTS OF IMPORTED METALS
4. PEOPLE
5. SAILING THE OCEAN
6. DISCUSSION
7. GOLD AND SILVER IMPORT

Dr. R.M. de Jonge ©, drsrmdejonge@hotmail.com
July, 2012

SUMMARY
The Phaistos Disc of Crete dates from 1458 BC, which is in the Middle Bronze Age of
Europe. To make bronze, copper was usually alloyed with 10% tin. These metals were
scarce in the Old World. It is shown that both metals were imported from the other side of
the Atlantic: 400 tons of copper per year from Upper Michigan, and 40 tons of tin per
year from Bolivia. About 40% of the copper was transported via the St. Lawrence River
to the east, and 60% via the Mississippy River to the south.

In total 288 thousand tons of copper were removed from North America and 28.8 thou-
sand tons of tin from South America (c.2500-1458 BC). Assuming a constant import vo-
lume after this time periode, another 103 thousand tons of copper were removed and 10.3
thousand tons of tin were taken away (c.1458-1200 BC). In these days America was a co-
lony of Egypt, together forming the Empire of Atlantis.

In 1458 BC 1,400 people mined the copper ore in Upper Michigan, 2,400 people extrac-
ted the copper, and 1,900 people shipped the copper ingots across the Ocean. At the same
time 1,400 people mined the tin (and other) ore in Bolivia, 1,600 people extracted the tin,
and 190 people shipped the tin ingots (and nobel metals) to the Old World. The Standard
Ingot turns out to have a mass of 80 thousand carats, or 16 kg.

The long distance transport was accomplished by 27 seaworthy ships, with a calculated
crew of c.78 men per ship. The round trip of each ship, with a calculated metal cargo of
13 tons on the return route, lasted 290 days (9.5 months). 60% of the people reached
America via the Southern Crossing, and 40% of the ships sailed along the Northern Cros-
sing. 60% of the people returned via Bermuda to the Azores, and 40% took the return
route via Sable Island, just below Newfoundland.

In 1458 BC 60 thousand carats, or 12 kg of gold per year was imported from the mouth of
the Amazone River, in total 8.6 tons; 100 thousand carats, or 20 kg of gold per year from
Ghana, Africa, in total 14.3 tons; 190 thousand carats, or 38 kg of gold per year from Bo-
livia, in total 27.1 tons; and 100 thousand carats, or 20 kg of silver per year from Bolivia,
in total 14.0 tons. - Until 1200 BC and assuming a constant import volume, another 3.1
tons of gold was imported from the Amazone River, 5.2 tons of gold from Ghana and
Ivory Coast, 9.8 tons of gold from Bolivia, and 5.2 tons of silver from Bolivia.

The Empire of Atlantis existed from 2500 to 1200 BC. During this time period 24.4 milli-
on copper ingots and 2.44 million tin ingots were shipped to the Old World, together with
58 million carats of gold from the Amazone, 97 million carats of gold from Ghana, 184
million carats of gold from Bolivia, and 96 million carats of silver from Bolivia.

1. INTRODUCTION
In Europe the Bronze Age lasted from circa 2500 to 900 BC. The start of it coïncided
with the Egyptian discovery of America via the Atlantic Ocean, c.2500 BC, and the end
of it was caused by the introduction of the new metal of iron, which gradually replaced
the bronze in that time period. (Refs.7-19)

The Phaistos Disc dates from 1458 BC, which is right in the so-called Middle Bronze
Age. To improve the properties of the metal of copper, bronze was made by alloying the
copper with 10% of tin. (The words ‘tin’ and ‘ten’ are even related.) Both metals were
rather scarce, tin still the most. In view of the great influence of bronze in daily life, it is
probable the disc contains information about the copper and tin import across the Ocean,
especially around this date. (Refs.1-6)

On the Phaistos Disc the symbol of the “bronze shield” occurs. On the front side 15
“shields” are shown, referring to the Southern Cape Verde islands, at 15°N, which were
at the start of the Southern Crossing of the Ocean. Latitudes were already known in the
Ne-olithicum, c.4800 BC. The many “bronze shields” show the primary information
about this long distance transport is indicated on the front side of the disc.

On the back side are only 2 “shields”, corresponding to the Northern Cape Verde islands,
2° above the southern islands, at 15+2= 17°N. It confirms the role of this archipelago.
These 2 “shields” are about 10% of the total number of 17 “shields” and 4 other bronze
objects on the disc, confirming the 10% tin in the bronze. The total number of 17
“shields” suggests a source of the copper near Keweenaw Peninsula, Upper Michigan,
17° above the Nile Delta, at 30+17= 47°N. (Refs.41-48)

Fig.1 The copper was transported in the shape of “oxe hide ingots”. These handy plates
weighed about 16 kg (35 pounds), and could be carried on the shoulder
for loading and unloading the ships (Crete, c.1500 BC).

2. COPPER AND TIN FROM THE WEST
Introduction
The equal passages A12 and A18 on the front side are part of the “Circle” A10-18 of 36
symbols, which correspond to the circumference of the planet Earth of 36 Moiras, or
360°. It shows people had circumnavigated the Earth in order to establish worldwide reli-
gious and trade contacts.

The back side of the disc has 30 passages. So, passage A12, or A30+A12= A42, might re-
fer to Isle Royale, Lake Superior, at the complementary latitude of 90-42= 48°N. In anti-
quity the use of complementary latitudes was very common. It may be considered as the
center of copper mining in North America. – Equal passage A18 might refer to the area
around the present town of Oruro, Bolivia, at 18°S. It may be considered as the center
of tin mining in South America.

Both passages A12 and A18 contain the pair of symbols “boat, corpse”, pointing to the
transport “per boat” of “oxe hide ingots”, because the sign of the “corpse” resembles a
“ingot having the shape of an oxe hide”. The 30 or so passages on each side of the disc
correspond with the 30 years of a generation. So, import goods indicated by a passage al-
ways refer to yearly quantities.

Passage A12 suggests a transport of 1,200 “copper ingots by boat” from Isle Royale per
year. Next or 2nd passage A13 has at the end the important symbols of “shield, King”,
which confirm the 2nd number (2). Passage A15 has at the end “two ingots” and a
“shield, King”, which indicate the number should be written down in 15-11= 4 figures.
The combinations of “shield, King” in A13 and A15 show, the copper ingots are used to
make “bronze products” for the “King”.

The “two ingots” in passage A15 are interesting. These suggest a “tin ingot” and a “cop-
per ingot”, respectively. The first symbol is lightly pecked and has a darker colour, so is
different, indeed. The two symbols touch each other, which is unusual. It suggests that tin
and copper are mixed to obtain bronze, the material of the “shield” which is the next sym-
bol. (Refs.49-52)

Geography
The image of the front side of the disc in Fig.2 is correct, also in a geographical sense.
Last passage A31 is in the south. This means that the series of passages A12-15 point to
the west. It suggests both metals, copper and tin, were imported from the west. Last pas-
sage A15 encodes the Southern Cape Verde islands, at 15°N, again. It confirms the role
of the Southern Crossing of the Ocean to America. The two sides of the disc possess to-
gether 31+30= 61 passages, corresponding to the sailing direction of the Southern Cros-
sing, 61° SW.

The two ingots in passage A15 touch each other, which is unusual. It means the total
quantities of imported copper and tin per year are shown by two consecutive passages
with ingots. These passages have to be the adjacent passages A25 and A26 on the edge at
the left side. Their position confirms both metals were imported from America, in the far
west. In these days America was a colony of Egypt, together forming the Empire of At-
lantis. Note, that the round disc symbolizes the spherical Earth. (Refs.20-25)

Yearly import of copper and tin
Passage A25 suggests an import of 25,000 copper ingots from Upper Michigan per year.
A25 contains the unique symbol of the “bronze chopper”, strongly confirming it. It is one
of the few other bronze objects on the disc. Next or 2nd passage A26 has a “waterway, in-
got”, confirming the 2nd number (5), and passage A29 has a “cover, waterway”, indica-
ting the number has to be written down in 29-24= 5 figures.

The sign of the “cover” in A29 represents “time” or “duration”, because the cover is nor-
mally used to preserve food. So, the pair of symbols “cover, waterway” indicates, the in-
gots are transported via “long sailing routes”. The “shield” in A26 confirms the copper is
used to make bronze products. The combination “cover, waterway, ingot” in this passage
confirms the “long sailing routes for these ingots”.

Passage A25 with the unique chopper also suggests an import of 2,500 tin ingots from
Bolivia per year. This is 10% of the copper ingots. Next or 2nd passage A26 has a “cover,
waterway, ingot”, confirming the 2nd number (5), and A27b (of passage A27a/b) has a
“shield, King”, confirming the number should be written down in 28-24= 4 figures.

The “shield, King” of A27b confirms the tin is used to make bronze products for the
King. Note, that this “shield” is almost cut in half. To make this “bronze shield”, one has
to use also tin, of course. - Next passage A28 is at the end of a paragraph, confirming the
number is written down in 28-24= 4 figures.

Both edges of the disc contain together 13+12= 25 passages, confirming the yearly import
of 25,000 copper ingots. The front side has five turns, confirming the 5 figures of this
number. It also confirms the yearly import of 2,500 tin ingots. The back side has four

turns, confirming the 4 figures of this number. These edges represent the America’s, at
the edge of the then known World.

The Standard Ingot had a mass of 16 kg (see below). It means the import of copper from
Upper Michigan was 25x16= 400 tons per year, and the import of tin from Bolivia was
2.5x16= 40 tons per year. (Refs.26-31)

Copper transport via two routes
Copper was transported from Upper Michigan to the Ocean via two different routes. A12
represents a relative quantity of 12 ingots from Isle Royale, at the complementary latitude
of 90-42= 48°N. Equal passage A18 represents a relative quantity of 18 ingots from Isle
Royale, at the same latitude of 30+18= 48°N. A12 has a high position on the disc, so it
symbolizes the northern route. A18 has a low position, so it represents the southern route.

So, it appears a fraction of (12/30), or 40% of the copper was shipped from Upper Michi-
gan to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in the east, and a fraction of (18/30), or 60% of the
copper was transported along the Mississippi River to the south. These percentages were
apparently valid during the whole time period of the copper import. (Refs.32-40)

Fig.2 Front side A of the Phaistos Disc
(Crete, c.1458 BC) (Courtesy L. Godart, Ref.43)

Fig.3 Back side B of the Phaistos Disc
(Crete, c.1458 BC) (Courtesy L. Godart, Ref.43)

3. AMOUNTS OF IMPORTED METALS
America was discovered via the Atlantic c.2500 BC, and the disc dates from 1458 BC.
It means the import could have lasted about 1000 years. This statement is confirmed
for the Lake Superior region, where the copper mines were exploited from c.2500 to
1200 BC. Information about the tin mines of Bolivia, however, is lacking. (Refs.49-52)

If the produced quantity of copper was all the time the same, 25 thousand ingots per
year, it would have resulted in a total import of about 25 million copper ingots from
Upper Michigan, probably best indicated by passage A25 on the front side. However,
in reality this will not be true, of course. So, we have to look for an appropriate passa-
ge with a lower number.

The import of copper will be best shown by passage A18, which has a “stone hammer”
and a combination of “boat, ingot, King”. It indicates a total import of 18 million cop-
per ingots, or 18x16= 288 thousand tons of copper. Next or 2nd passage A19 is the last
one of the Inner Part, confirming the 2nd number (8), and A25 has the special combi-
nation of “bronze chopper, ingot”, strongly confirming the number has to be written
down in 25-17= 8 figures (c.2500-1458 BC).

The import of tin will be best shown by passage A18, too. It indicates a total import of
1.8 million tin ingots, or 1.8x16= 28.8 thousand tons of tin. Next or 2nd passage A19
confirms the 2nd number (8), and A24 has the combination of “Queen, bronze shield,
King”, confirming the number has to be written down in 24-17= 7 figures. It equals
10% of the copper import (c.2500-1458 BC). (Refs.53-55)

Calculations
The Phaistos Disc shows the yearly production of the metals slowly increased because
of population growth. For an estimation of the yearly production P(t) and the overall
production OP(t) after the start of the metal transport across the Ocean, c.2500 BC, a
linear increase of P(t) is assumed. On this basis the following formula’s can be used:

Copper from Upper Michigan, until 1458 BC
P(t), yearly Production in tons/year; t, years of Production
Start in 2500 BC: t = 0 years, P(t) = 152 tons/y
End in 1458 BC: t =1042 years, P(t) = 400 tons/y (linear increase)
General Formula: P(t) = 0.238 x t + 152 (tons/y)
Overall Production: OP(t) = 0.5 x 0.238 x t2 + 152 x t (tons)
End in 1458 BC: t =1042 years, OP(t) = 288,000 tons

Tin from Bolivia, until 1458 BC
P(t), yearly Production in tons/year; t, years of Production
Start in 2500 BC: t = 0 years, P(t) = 15.2 tons/y
End in 1458 BC: t =1042 years, P(t) = 40.0 tons/y (linear increase)
General Formula: P(t) = 0.0238 x t + 15.2 (tons/y)
Overall Production: OP(t) = 0.5 x 0.0238 x t2 + 15.2 x t (tons)
End in 1458 BC: t =1042 years, OP(t) = 28,800 tons

4. PEOPLE
Mining of copper
Passage B23 on the back side encodes the holy Tropic of Cancer and the Southern
Egyptian Empire, at 23°N. It is the center of the Sunreligion. At midsummer day, the
Sun is there at right angles above. The slow northerly movement of the Sun turns into a
southerly movement. So, one believes in the Egyptian SunGod Ra. (Refs.20-25)

Note, that B23 has the unique “bronze mattock” at the end, which refers to the mining
of ore. Its handle points to the last separation line of the passage. This piece of line is
different from the others, because it extends beyond the spiral-shaped line at the inside.
It points to the so-called “messenger” of B14, referring to number of people, which is
part of the special combination “messenger, ingot”. It also has a “King” at the end.

Passage B14 indicates that 1,400 people were involved in the mining of copper ore in
Upper Michigan, because a factor 10 less or more would be in both cases unprobable.

Next or 2nd passage B15 has a “Queen”, confirming the 2nd number (4), and B17 has
a “palace, bronze saw”, showing the number has to be written down in 17-13= 4 figu-
res. Note, that last passage B17 encodes Keweenaw Peninsula, Upper Michigan, at
30+17= 47°N. It contains the symbol of the Palace of Phaistos, Crete (1458 BC).

Processing
The handle of the “bronze mattock” in B23 also points to next passage B24, having a
“messenger”. B24 indicates 2,400 people were involved in the processing of copper
ore in Upper Michigan. Next or 2nd passage B25 has a “stone hammer, bronze saw”,
confirming the 2nd number (4), and B27 has an “ingot, boat” and the sign of “religi-
on”, showing the number has to be written down in 27-23= 4 figures.

The “bronze saw” shows people had to cut a lot of trees to heat the ovens in order to
extract the copper. Both “ingot” and “boat” in the last passage also occur in B9, enco-
ding the density of copper, 9 g/cm3 (nine times heavier than water). The “copper ingot”
also occurs in passage A9 on the front side, having a “shield, King”, because these in-
gots were meant to make bronze products for the king. This passage contains the Pala-
ce of Knossos on Crete!

The Phaistos Disc states that 1,400 people mined the copper ore in Upper Michigan to
produce 400 tons of copper per year. It can be calculated that 0.78 kg of raw copper
was produced by the miners per man per day, which sounds reasonable. The Disc sta-
tes that 2.400 people processed the raw copper. It can be calculated that 0.46 kg of pu-
re copper was extracted in this process per man per day. Together these people were a-
ble to produce 0.29 kg of a copper ingot per man per day, which sounds reasonable,
too.

Shipping
Passage B9 on the back side points to B19 on the edge, having a “messenger” and a
“boat, ingot”. It encodes 1,900 people who were involved in shipping the copper ingots
across the Ocean. Next or 2nd passage B20 has a “horn, king”, confirming the 2nd
number (9), and B22 has a “boat” and the sign of “religion”, showing the number has
to be written down in 22-18= 4 figures. Note, that these symbols were also present in
B27, the last passage of the series encoding the number of people making the copper
ingots.

Mining and Processing of tin
Passage B14 indicates that 1,400 people were involved in the mining of tin ore (and
other metal ores) in Bolivia, the same number as in Upper Michigan. - The “messen-
ger” in B16 shows that 1,600 people were involved in the processing of tin ore (and
other metal ores). Next or 2nd passage B17 has a “palace, bronze saw”, confirming the
2nd number (6), and B19 has a “boat, ingot” at the end, showing the number has to be
written down in 19-15= 4 figures. The “bronze saw” shows people had to cut a lot of
trees to heat the ovens in order to extract the tin (and other metals) (1458 BC).

Passage B7 is shortly underlined above B14 and B15, to indicate this number of people
was working for tin, having a density of 7 g/cm3 (seven times heavier than water). It
shows that tin was more difficult to extract than copper, which is a semi-nobel metal.
However, the production of copper was ten times higher. So, the number of people ex-
tracting it was higher, too.

Shipping
The “messenger” and the combination of “flower, boat, ingot” in passage B19 indica-
tes that 190 people were involved in shipping the tin ingots and other metals, which is
10% of the number of people needed for shipping the copper ingots. The flower is the
symbol for nobel metals, as will be shown below. - B19 on the edge has a “tin ingot”,
also occurring in passage A9 on the front side. A9 has a “shield, King”, because these
ingots were meant to make bronze products for the king. This passage contains the Pa-
lace of Knossos on Crete, again!

Total number
The Phaistos Disc shows the whole operation of mining, processing and transport of
metals from Upper Michigan and Bolivia was achieved by 5,700 + 3,200= 8,900 men.
This number is confirmed by passage B28, because B28= B30+A31+B28= B89, en-
coding 6,100 + 2,800= 8,900 men, indeed.

Passage B28 has a “Royal Son, stone hammer” and a “King”. Next or 2nd passage B29
has the combination “cover, waterway, ingot”, illustrating the “long sailing routes for
the ingots”, and confirming the 2nd number (9). Last passage B19 shows the number
of people transporting these metals, which confirms the 31-27= 4 figures of the num-
ber.

Passage A28 on the front side confirms it, too. Next or 2nd passage A29 has a “cover,
waterway”, stressing the “long sailing routes”, and confirming the 2nd number (9).
Last passage A31 of the side shows the people were working to make bronze products
for the king, which confirms the 31-28= 4 figures of the number, again. (Refs.46-55)

5. SAILING THE OCEAN
Seaworthy ships
Passage B27 on the back side has the combination of “ingot, boat”, which is a kind of
special, because all other similar combinations were of the type “boat, ingot” (the re-
verse). It indicates that 27 seaworthy ships were involved in the inter-continental metal
transport. Next passage B28 has a “Royal Son, stone hammer” and a “King”, confir-
ming the last number (7). So, it appears each ship needed a crew of 2,100/27= c.78 pe-
ople to do the job (1458 BC).

Duration of round trip
The 30 or so passages on each side correspond with the 30 days of a month, so the
“day” is often an appropriate time unit. Next passage B29 has the combination of “co-
ver, waterway, ingot”. As explained previously, the duration of an event is indicated
with the “cover” on the disc. The “cover” is normally used to keep food fresh, so it in-
dicates time.

B29 encodes the “duration of the sailing route of the ingots”, which apparently lasted
290 days (9.5 months). Next or 2nd passage B30 has a “shield, King”, confirming the
2nd number (9), and B19, the next passage on the edge, has a “boat, ingot”, confirming
the number has to be written down in 31-28= 3 figures.

The next passage of the Inner Part can also be chosen, because B1 has a “cover, wa-
terway”, confirming the 3 figures. The “duration of the sailing route” in this passage

shows, one refers to the whole round trip on the Ocean (!), because the center of the
disc symbolizes Crete (or Egypt) in the Old World.

Passage A29 on the front side has a “cover, waterway”, confirming the “duration of the
sailing route” lasted 290 days. Next or 2nd passage A30 has a “bronze shield”, confir-
ming the 2nd number (9), and A31, the last passage of the side, has a “shield, King”,
confirming the number has to be written down in 31-28= 3 figures.

The 12 months of a year are indicated by the 12 or so passages on the edges of the
disc, so the month may be an appropriate time unit, too. Passage A29 with the “cover,
waterway” is at the start of a series of 3+7= 10 passages A29-25, indicating the durati-
on of the sailing route to the west, c.10 months (slightly more than 290 days). Last im-
portant passage A25 has the special combination of “bronze chopper, ingot”.

The series A29-26 (skipping A19) confirms it. Last passage A26 has a “bronze shield,
cover, waterway, ingot”, confirming the “duration of the sailing route of the ingots for
making bronze products”, so the whole round trip (1458 BC).

Metal cargo
In a year the 27 ships have to transport a total number of 25,000+2,500= 27,500 ingots
across the Ocean. If the round trip would have lasted a year, or 365 days, the metal car-
go of each ship would have been 27,500/27= 1019 ingots. However, the round trip last
shorter, only 290 days. So, on the average, the metal cargo of each ship equals
(290/365) x1019= 809 ingots, having a mass of 809x16= 12,940 kg, or c.13 tons.

Crossing the Ocean
People from the Old World had a choice for reaching America. The “boat” in passage
B27 points to B16, having a “messenger”. It may refer to the Cape Verde Islands, at
16°N, at the start of the Southern Crossing. The “boat” in passage B19, or B31, points
to B10, with the sign of “religion”. B31, having a “messenger”, too, may correspond to
the Orkney Islands, at the complementary latitude of 90-31= 59°N, which is at the start
of the Northern Crossing.

So, it appears that on the average 16/(16+10) x100= 62% of the people used the South-
ern Crossing to reach the New World. This sailing route, with the wind and the current,
was longer, but took place in a milder climate. However, 90-62= 38% of the ships pre-
ferred the shorter, Northern Crossing.

People returning from the New World had a choice for reaching the Azores in the mid-
dle of the Ocean. The “boat” in passage B2 touches the “hammer”, referring to B9,
which may symbolize the nine islands of the Azores. B2, or B32, encodes the island of
Bermuda, at 32°N. - The “boat” in passage A12, or A43, on the front side points to A6,
having a “messenger”. A43 may correspond to the south cape of Nova Scotia, at 43°N,
and to Cape Race, the SE Cape of Newfoundland, at the complementary latitude of
90-43= 47°N.

So, it appears that after the discovery of Bermuda (c.2387 BC), on the average 9/(9+6)
x100= 60% of the people used the return route via Bermuda to the Azores. This long-
er sailing route took place in a slightly milder climate. However, 90-60= 40% of the

boats used the shorter crossing via Sable Island, just below Newfoundland.
(Refs.1-19,65-68)

Fig.4 Chart of the nine islands of the Azores in the middle of the North Atlantic
Ocean. All ships, loaded with metals, passed these islands between
2500 and 1200 BC.

6. DISCUSSION
One of the greatest enigma’s of American archaeology is the huge amount of copper
which disappeared from the prehistoric mines in Upper Michigan. These extremely rich
mines contained (and still contain today) both native copper and high quality copper ore.
They were especially in use between c.2500 and 1200 BC. A few scholars have already
suggested, that during the Bronze Age an important part of this copper must have been
transported across the Ocean to the Old World. (Refs.49-52)

The Phaistos Disc reports an overall quantity of 288 thousand tons of copper imported
from Upper Michigan before the year of 1458 BC. It further reports an import volume of
400 tons of copper per year at this date. For an estimation of the total amount of copper,
imported from Upper Michigan between 2500 and 1200 BC, we have to make a reason-
able guess.

Let us assume a constant import volume of 400 tons of copper per year remained valid af-
ter the time of the Phaistos Disc, which is between 1458 and 1200 BC. It would mean,
that the additional amount imported from North America was 400x (1458-1200)=
c.103,000 tons of copper. It would also mean, that a total amount of 288,000 + 103,000=
391,000 tons of copper was removed from Upper Michigan. After inspection of the whole
mining area in Upper Michigan, a total amount of disappeared copper between 250 to 500
thousand tons was estimated by others in the field. So, our conclusion is that its
destination can now be understood. (Refs.49-64)

The Phaistos Disc reports an overall quantity of 28.8 thousand tons of tin imported from
South America before the year of 1458 BC. If a similar assumption is used, an additional
amount of 40x (1458-1200)= c.10,300 tons of tin was taken away between 1458 and 1200
BC. So, in that case a total amount of 28,800 + 10,300= 39,100 tons of tin was removed
from Bolivia (which is 10% of the copper).

People sometimes reject the idea of early metal transport across the Ocean. The usual
argument for their position is, that this long distance transport would be far too expen-
sive to be realistic. They say: “It simply cannot be true!” – What might be the reason
that it happened in spite of this strong argument?

The main reason is, that during the whole time period involved, America was a colony
of Egypt, together forming the Empire of Atlantis. Both the Old Copper Culture and
the Andes Culture were under Egyptian rule. It meant that law, order and safety was
garantied by the King of Egypt, back and forth on the Ocean, but also in America itself
(political stability). On the long run and when large quantities were shipped, it was de-
finitely cheaper than somewhere else! (Refs.20-31)

The tomb of Rekhmire, the Grand Vizier of king Thutmosis III, is located in Thebes,
Egypt. On the western wall of its chapel is “the Panel with the Two Doors”. This pain-
ting shows the casting of these bronze doors for the temple of Amun. It can be shown,
that the “Two Doors” encode an overall import of 18 million copper ingots (288 thou-
sand tons) from Upper Michigan, and 1.8 million tin ingots (28.8 thousand tons) from
Bolivia, until the time of Reckmire (c.1460 BC). It is an independent source confir-
ming the metal import at the time of the Phaistos Disc. (Refs.53-55)

7. GOLD AND SILVER IMPORT
Standard Ingot
Besides copper and tin there has also been a inter-continental transport of gold and silver.
The “flower” is the symbol for the manifacture of ornaments of these metals. So, the “flo-
wers” at the front side of the disc will provide information about the gold import, and the
“flower” on the back side deals with the less important silver import.

For a long time past these metals were weighed in units of carats, corresponding with
0.20 gram. The carat is the constant mass of a seed of the St. John’s bread or carob tree
(Ceratonia siliqua). Note, that the petals of the “flower” on the disc resemble these seeds.

B19 on the edge of the back side is the only passage having both the symbol of the “flow-
er” and that of the “ingot”. The “flower” has eight petals of equal size, and the front side
has five turns, suggesting the mass of the Standard Ingot: 80,000 carats (a number of 5 fi-
gures), or 80x0.20= 16 kg. (Refs.1-6,41-45)

Gold import
The flower in passage A1 appears to deal with the gold import from the mouth of the
Amazon River, Brazil, at 1°S. The “burin” in the passage points to A6, while the head of
the “messenger” in this passage touches A1. A6 is at the start of a series of 5 passages,
corresponding to 60,000 carats, or 60x0.2= 12 kg gold per year. The series finishes with
the King in passage A10, confirming the 10-5= 5 figures.

The flower in passage A4 deals with the gold trade from Ghana and Ivory Coast in the
south of West Africa, at 4°N. The “burin” in de passage points to A10. It is at the start of
a series of 6 passages, corresponding to 100,000 carats, or 100x0.2= 20 kg gold per year.
The series finishes with the King in passage A15, confirming the 15-9= 6 figures.

The “flower” in passage A20 is situated close to previous passage A19, indicating the
source in the area near the present town of Potosi, Bolivia, at 19°S (Ref.39). It is at the
start of a series of 6 passages, again, corresponding to 190,000 carats, or 190x0.2= 38 kg
gold per year. The series finishes with the King in passage A24, confirming the 24-18= 6
figures. - Note, that A19 corresponds with the density of gold, 19 g/cm3 (nineteen times
heavier than water).

The total import to the area around the Mediterranean Sea equals 60+100+190= 350
thou-sand carats, or 12+20+38= 70 kg gold per year. This is confirmed with the “flower”
in A31+A4= A35. It is at the start of a series of 6 passages, encoding 350,000 carats, or
350x0.2= 70 kg gold per year (1458 BC). The series finishes with the King in passage
A9, confirming the 9-3= 6 figures.

For sure this trade has lasted for a 1000 years. So, perhaps the overall import was 350
million carats, which is 70 tons of gold. But this calculated quantity is not realistic, of
course. - When the true fraction equals that of copper and tin (see above), then in reality
the import of gold totalled to about 18/25x350= 252 million carats. This quantity is indi-
cated by the next passage A25 (!), which contains the special symbol of the bronze or gol-
den chopper.

So, the overall import of gold to the area around the Mediterranean is indicated by passa-
ge A25. It is at the start of a series of 9 passages, corresponding to 250 million carats, or
250x0.2= 50 tons of gold (till 1458 BC). The series finishes with the flower, the stone
hammer, and the King in passage A19, confirming the 7+2= 9 figures. So, (12/70) x50=
8.6 tons came from the mouth of the Amazone River, 14.3 tons from Ghana and Ivory
Coast, and 27.1 tons from Bolivia.

Silver import
The flower in passage B19 at the back side deals with the silver import from the Pacific
Coast near Bolivia, South America, at 19°S (Ref.39). The “boat” in the passage, which is
carrying the silver, touches passage B10 above it. It encodes the density of silver, 10
g/cm3 (ten times heavier than water). It is at the start of a series of 6 passages, correspon-
ding to 100,000 carats, or 100x0.2= 20kg silver per year (1458 BC). The series finishes
with the Queen in passage B15, confirming the 15-9= 6 figures.

For sure this trade has lasted for a 1000 years. So, perhaps the overall import equaled 100
million carats, which is 20 tons of silver. But this is not realistic, of course. - When the
true fraction equals that of copper, tin and gold (see above), then in reality the import of
silver totalled to about 18/25x100= 72 million carats. The “glove” in passage B10, just
mentioned, touches the “cover”. So, this quantity is indicated by passage B7, which con-
tains to the tune of two “covers”!

So, the overall import of silver to te area of the Mediterranean is indicated by passage B7.
It is at the start of a series of 8 passages, corresponding with 70 million carats, or 70x0.2=
14.0 tons of silver (till 1458 BC). The series finishes with the messenger, the ingot, and

the King in passage A14, confirming the 14-6= 8 figures. - Note, that the 3 flowers at the
front side, and the single flower at the back side affirm, that the import of gold was about
3 times as high as the import of silver (250/70= 3.6).

In 1458 BC the total import of noble metals (gold and silver) was 350+100= 450 thou-
sand carats, or 70+20= 90kg per year. It is confirmed by last passage A31+B14= B45,
just mentioned. It is at the start of a series of 6 passages, finishing with the “flower” in
B19, confirming the 19-13= 6 figures.

Till 1458 BC, the overall import of noble metals (gold and silver) was 250+70= 320
million carats, or 50+14= 64 tons. It is confirmed by the first passage A31+A1= A32,
having a “flower”, again. It is at the start of a series of 9 passages, finishing with the
Palace of Knossos and the King in A9, confirming the 9 figures.

Calculations
The Phaistos Disc shows the yearly production of the metals increased because of po-
pulation growth. For an estimation of the yearly production P(t) and the overall pro-
duction OP(t) after the start of the metal transport across the Ocean, c.2500 BC, a line-
ar increase in P(t) is assumed. On this basis the following formula’s can be used:

Gold from Mouth Amazone River, until 1458 BC
P(t), yearly Production in kg/year; t, years of Production
Start in 2500 BC: t = 0 years, P(t) = 4.46 kg/y
End in 1458 BC: t =1042 years, P(t) = 12.0 kg/y (linear increase)
General Formula: P(t) = 0.00724 x t + 4.46 (kg/y)
Overall Production: OP(t) = 0.5 x 0.00724 x t2 + 4.46 x t (kg)
End in 1458 BC: t =1042 years, OP(t) = 8.6 tons

Gold from Ghana and Ivory Coast, until 1458 BC

Gold from Bolivia, until 1458 BC

Silver from Bolivia, until 1458 BC


Discussion
Let us assume, that a constant import volume of 70 kg of gold per year, and of 20 kg of
silver per year, remained valid after the time of the Phaistos Disc, which is between 1458
and 1200 BC. It would mean, that the additional amount of imported noble metals was
70x (1458-1200) /1000= c.18.1 tons of gold, and 20x (1458-1200) /1000= c.5.2 tons of
silver. (3.1 tons of gold from the Amazone, 5.2 tons of gold from Ghana, and 9.8 tons of
gold from Bolivia). It would mean, that a total amount of 50+18.1= 68.1 tons of gold, and
of 14+5.2= 19.2 tons of silver was imported from abroad, until the year of 1200 BC.

The Empire of Atlantis existed from 2500 to 1200 BC. During this time period 24.4
million copper ingots and 2.44 million tin ingots were shipped to the Old World, toge-
ther with 58 million carats of gold from the Amazone, 97 million carats of gold from
Ghana, 184 million carats of gold from Bolivia, and 96 million carats of silver from
Bolivia (Phaistos Disc). Compared with other values from the literature these amounts
may be slightly too high, but only by 1.5%. (Refs.49-64)

LITERATURE
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