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Physiology of Pregnancy
Chintan

- Dr.
Placenta
๏ƒ‘

Estrogen - syncytial trophoblast cells

๏ƒ‘

toward the end of pregnancy, the daily production of
placental estrogens increases to about 30 times the motherโ€™s
normal level of production.

๏ƒ‘

not synthesized from basic substrates in the placenta.

๏ƒ‘

they are formed almost entirely from androgenic steroid
compounds,
dehydroepiandrosterone
and
16hydroxydehydroepiandrosterone, which are formed both in the
motherโ€™s adrenal glands and in the adrenal glands of the fetus.

๏ƒ‘

Large adrenal cortex in fetus โ€“ fetal zone 80 %
Placenta
๏ƒ‘

Function of Estrogen

(1) enlargement of the motherโ€™s uterus,
๏ƒ‘ (2) enlargement of the motherโ€™s breasts and growth of the
breast ductal structure,
๏ƒ‘ (3) enlargement of the motherโ€™s female external genitalia.
๏ƒ‘

๏ƒ‘

relax the pelvic ligaments of the mother, so that the
sacroiliac joints become relatively flexible and the
symphysis pubis becomes elastic.

๏ƒ‘

These changes allow easier passage of the fetus through the
birth canal.
Placenta
๏ƒ‘

Progesterone - syncytial trophoblast cells

๏ƒ‘

In addition to being secreted in moderate quantities by
the corpus luteum at the beginning of pregnancy,

๏ƒ‘

it is secreted later in tremendous quantities by the
placenta, averaging about a 10-fold increase during the
course of pregnancy.

๏ƒ‘

1. Progesterone causes decidual cells to develop in the
uterine endometrium, and these cells play an
important role in the nutrition of the early embryo.
Placenta
๏ƒ‘

2. Progesterone decreases the contractility of the
pregnant uterus, thus preventing spontaneous
abortion.

๏ƒ‘

3. Progesterone contributes to the development of the
conceptus even before implantation, because it specifically
increases the secretions of the motherโ€™s fallopian tubes and
uterus to provide appropriate nutritive matter for the
developing morula and blastocyst.

๏ƒ‘

There is also reason to believe that progesterone affects cell
cleavage in the early developing embryo.

๏ƒ‘

4. The progesterone secreted during pregnancy helps the
estrogen to prepare the motherโ€™s breasts for lactation.
Placenta
๏ƒ‘

Human Chorionic Somatomammotropin

๏ƒ‘

protein with a molecular weight of about 38,000,
and it begins to be secreted by the placenta at
about the fifth week of pregnancy.

๏ƒ‘

Secretion of this hormone increases progressively
throughout the remainder of pregnancy in direct
proportion to the weight of the placenta.

๏ƒ‘

it is secreted in quantities several times greater
than all the other pregnancy hormones combined.
Placenta
๏ƒ‘

when administered to several types of lower
animals, hCS causes at least partial development of
the animalโ€™s breasts and in some instances causes
lactation.

๏ƒ‘

Because this was the first function of the hormone
discovered, it was first named human placental
lactogen (hPL) and was believed to have functions
similar to those of prolactin.

๏ƒ‘

attempts to promote lactation in humans with its
use have not been successful.
Placenta
๏ƒ‘

it has weak actions similar to those of GH, causing the
formation of protein tissues. It also has a chemical
structure similar to that of GH, but 100 times as much
hCS is required to promote growth.

๏ƒ‘

decreases insulin sensitivity and decreased utilization
of glucose in the mother, thereby making larger
quantities of glucose available to the fetus.

๏ƒ‘

releases free fatty acids from the fat stores of the
mother, thus providing this alternative source of
energy for the motherโ€™s metabolism during pregnancy.
Other Hormones
๏ƒ‘

Pituitary Secretion. The anterior pituitary gland of the
mother enlarges at least 50 per cent during pregnancy and
increases its production of corticotropin, thyrotropin and
prolactin. pituitary secretion of FSH and LH is almost totally
suppressed

๏ƒ‘

Corticosteroid Secretion. The rate of adrenocortical
secretion of the glucocorticoids is moderately โ†‘ throughout
pregnancy. It is possible that these glucocorticoids help
mobilize amino acids from the motherโ€™s tissues.

๏ƒ‘

twofold increase in the secretion of aldosterone, reaching a
peak at the end of gestation. This, along with the actions of
estrogens, reabsorb excess sodium & retain fluid,
occasionally leading to PIH.
Other Hormones
๏ƒ‘

Secretion by the Thyroid Gland. The motherโ€™s thyroid gland
increases its production of thyroxin . The increased thyroxin
production is caused at least partly by a thyrotrophic effect of
hCG secreted by the placenta and by small quantities of human
chorionic thyrotropin, also secreted by the placenta.

๏ƒ‘

Secretion by the Parathyroid Glands. The motherโ€™s parathyroid
glands usually enlarge if the mother is on a calcium-deficient
diet. Enlargement of these glands causes calcium absorption
from the motherโ€™s bones, thereby maintaining normal calcium
ion concentration in the motherโ€™s ECF even while the fetus
removes calcium to ossify its own bones.

๏ƒ‘

This secretion of parathyroid hormone is even more intensified
during lactation after the babyโ€™s birth, because the growing baby
requires many times more calcium than the fetus does.
Response of the Mother
๏ƒ‘

The uterus increases from about 50 grams to 1100 grams โ€“
hypertrophy, plasia โ€“ connective, elastic tissue

๏ƒ‘

the breasts approximately double in size

๏ƒ‘

the vagina enlarges and the introitus opens more widely

๏ƒ‘

development of
pigmentation

๏ƒ‘

Weight Gain
Fetus, placenta, fluid
Uterus, breast
Blood
Tissue fluid
Fat

๏ƒ‘
๏ƒ‘
๏ƒ‘
๏ƒ‘
๏ƒ‘

edema,

acne

โ€“ 12.5 kg
โ€“ 4.5
โ€“ 1.5
โ€“ 1.5
โ€“ 1.5
โ€“ 3.5

โ€“

morning

sickness

โ€“

skin
Response of the Mother
๏ƒ‘

Greatly increased desire for food, partly as a result of removal
of food substrates from the motherโ€™s blood by the fetus

๏ƒ‘

BMR of the pregnant woman increases about 15 per cent
during the latter half of pregnancy - sensations of becoming
overheated โ€“ extra load โ€“ extra energy for muscle activity

๏ƒ‘

Deficiencies of calcium, phosphates, iron and vitamins hypochromic anemia

๏ƒ‘

vitamin K is often added to the motherโ€™s diet so that the baby
will have sufficient prothrombin to prevent hemorrhage,
particularly brain hemorrhage, caused by the birth process
Response of the Mother
๏ƒ‘

Increases in CO to 30 to 40 per cent above normal โ€“ extra
625 ml for placenta

๏ƒ‘

Blood volume about 30 per cent above normal during the
latter half of pregnancy - aldosterone and estrogens increased fluid retention by the kidneys

๏ƒ‘

Blood

๏ƒ‘

1 to 2 liters of extra blood in circulatory system โ€“ 1/4th
fourth of this amount is normally lost through bleeding
during delivery of the baby - safety factor for the mother
Response of the Mother
๏ƒ‘

Because of the increased BMR & greater size, the total amount
of oxygen used by the mother shortly before birth of the baby
is about 20 per cent above normal, and a proportionate
amount of carbon dioxide is formed.

๏ƒ‘

These effects cause the motherโ€™s minute ventilation (RMV) to
increase.

๏ƒ‘

high levels of progesterone increase the minute ventilation
even more, because progesterone increases the respiratory
centerโ€™s sensitivity to carbon dioxide.

๏ƒ‘

growing uterus presses upward against the abdominal
contents โ€“ diaphragm โ€“ the RR is increased to maintain the
extra ventilation.
Response of the Mother
๏ƒ‘

The rate of urine formation slightly increased because of
increased fluid intake and increased load of excretory
products.

๏ƒ‘

renal tubulesโ€™ reabsorptive capacity for sodium, chloride
and water is increased as much as 50 per cent

๏ƒ‘

the GFR increases as much as 50 per cent, which tends to
increase the rate of water and electrolyte excretion in the
urine.

๏ƒ‘

When all these effects are considered, the normal pregnant
woman ordinarily accumulates less amount of extra water
and salt.
Amniotic Fluid
๏ƒ‘

Normally, the volume of amniotic fluid is between 500
milliliters and 1 liter.

๏ƒ‘

water in amniotic fluid is replaced once every 3 hours, and the
electrolytes sodium and potassium are replaced an average of
once every 15 hours.

๏ƒ‘

A large portion of the fluid is derived from renal excretion by
the fetus. a certain amount of absorption occurs by way of the
GIT and lungs of the fetus.

๏ƒ‘

even after in utero death of a fetus, some turnover of the
amniotic fluid is still present, which indicates that some of the
fluid is formed and absorbed directly through the amniotic
membranes.
Preeclampsia
๏ƒ‘

Rapid rise in arterial blood pressure to hypertensive levels
during the last few months of pregnancy. This is also associated
with proteinuria. This condition is called preeclampsia or toxemia
of pregnancy.

๏ƒ‘

Excess salt and water retention - weight gain โ€“ edema

๏ƒ‘

In addition, there is impaired function of the vascular
endothelium, and arterial spasm occurs in many parts of the
motherโ€™s body, most significantly in the kidneys, brain, and liver.

๏ƒ‘

Both the RBF and the GFR are decreased

๏ƒ‘

Thickened glomerular tufts that contain a protein deposit in the
basement membranes
Preeclampsia
๏ƒ‘

1 theory is that preeclampsia results from some type of
autoimmunity or allergy in the mother caused by the presence
of the fetus. In support of this, the acute symptoms usually
disappear within a few days after birth of the baby.

๏ƒ‘

preeclampsia is initiated by insufficient blood supply to the
placenta, resulting in the placentaโ€™s release of substances that
cause widespread dysfunction of the maternal vascular
endothelium

๏ƒ‘

trophoblasts invade the arterioles of the uterine endometrium
and completely remodel the maternal arterioles - maternal
arterioles fail to undergo adaptive changes

๏ƒ‘

Inflammatory cytokines such as TNF - alpha and IL - 6.
Eclampsia
๏ƒ‘

Eclampsia is an extreme degree of preeclampsia, characterized by
vascular spasm throughout the body; clonic seizures in the
mother, sometimes followed by coma;

๏ƒ‘

greatly decreased kidney output; malfunction of the liver; often
extreme hypertension; and a generalized toxic condition of the
body.

๏ƒ‘

It usually occurs shortly before birth of the baby.

๏ƒ‘

Without treatment, a high percentage of eclamptic mothers die.

๏ƒ‘

with optimal and immediate use of rapidly acting vasodilating
drugs to reduce the arterial pressure to normal, followed by
immediate termination of pregnancy by CS
Pregnancy test
๏ƒ‘

Presence of hCG in urine 14 days after conception โ€“ UPT

๏ƒ‘

Immunological

๏ƒ‘

Antiserum from rabbit mixed with urine

๏ƒ‘

No HCG in urine + antiserum + HCG coated latex โ€“
agglutination โ€“ negative UPT

๏ƒ‘

HCG in urine + antiserum + HCG coated latex โ€“
agglutination โ€“ positive UPT

๏ƒ‘

False negative, false positive

no
Thank uโ€ฆ

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Physiology of pregnancy

  • 2.
  • 3.
  • 4.
  • 5. Placenta ๏ƒ‘ Estrogen - syncytial trophoblast cells ๏ƒ‘ toward the end of pregnancy, the daily production of placental estrogens increases to about 30 times the motherโ€™s normal level of production. ๏ƒ‘ not synthesized from basic substrates in the placenta. ๏ƒ‘ they are formed almost entirely from androgenic steroid compounds, dehydroepiandrosterone and 16hydroxydehydroepiandrosterone, which are formed both in the motherโ€™s adrenal glands and in the adrenal glands of the fetus. ๏ƒ‘ Large adrenal cortex in fetus โ€“ fetal zone 80 %
  • 6. Placenta ๏ƒ‘ Function of Estrogen (1) enlargement of the motherโ€™s uterus, ๏ƒ‘ (2) enlargement of the motherโ€™s breasts and growth of the breast ductal structure, ๏ƒ‘ (3) enlargement of the motherโ€™s female external genitalia. ๏ƒ‘ ๏ƒ‘ relax the pelvic ligaments of the mother, so that the sacroiliac joints become relatively flexible and the symphysis pubis becomes elastic. ๏ƒ‘ These changes allow easier passage of the fetus through the birth canal.
  • 7. Placenta ๏ƒ‘ Progesterone - syncytial trophoblast cells ๏ƒ‘ In addition to being secreted in moderate quantities by the corpus luteum at the beginning of pregnancy, ๏ƒ‘ it is secreted later in tremendous quantities by the placenta, averaging about a 10-fold increase during the course of pregnancy. ๏ƒ‘ 1. Progesterone causes decidual cells to develop in the uterine endometrium, and these cells play an important role in the nutrition of the early embryo.
  • 8. Placenta ๏ƒ‘ 2. Progesterone decreases the contractility of the pregnant uterus, thus preventing spontaneous abortion. ๏ƒ‘ 3. Progesterone contributes to the development of the conceptus even before implantation, because it specifically increases the secretions of the motherโ€™s fallopian tubes and uterus to provide appropriate nutritive matter for the developing morula and blastocyst. ๏ƒ‘ There is also reason to believe that progesterone affects cell cleavage in the early developing embryo. ๏ƒ‘ 4. The progesterone secreted during pregnancy helps the estrogen to prepare the motherโ€™s breasts for lactation.
  • 9.
  • 10. Placenta ๏ƒ‘ Human Chorionic Somatomammotropin ๏ƒ‘ protein with a molecular weight of about 38,000, and it begins to be secreted by the placenta at about the fifth week of pregnancy. ๏ƒ‘ Secretion of this hormone increases progressively throughout the remainder of pregnancy in direct proportion to the weight of the placenta. ๏ƒ‘ it is secreted in quantities several times greater than all the other pregnancy hormones combined.
  • 11. Placenta ๏ƒ‘ when administered to several types of lower animals, hCS causes at least partial development of the animalโ€™s breasts and in some instances causes lactation. ๏ƒ‘ Because this was the first function of the hormone discovered, it was first named human placental lactogen (hPL) and was believed to have functions similar to those of prolactin. ๏ƒ‘ attempts to promote lactation in humans with its use have not been successful.
  • 12. Placenta ๏ƒ‘ it has weak actions similar to those of GH, causing the formation of protein tissues. It also has a chemical structure similar to that of GH, but 100 times as much hCS is required to promote growth. ๏ƒ‘ decreases insulin sensitivity and decreased utilization of glucose in the mother, thereby making larger quantities of glucose available to the fetus. ๏ƒ‘ releases free fatty acids from the fat stores of the mother, thus providing this alternative source of energy for the motherโ€™s metabolism during pregnancy.
  • 13. Other Hormones ๏ƒ‘ Pituitary Secretion. The anterior pituitary gland of the mother enlarges at least 50 per cent during pregnancy and increases its production of corticotropin, thyrotropin and prolactin. pituitary secretion of FSH and LH is almost totally suppressed ๏ƒ‘ Corticosteroid Secretion. The rate of adrenocortical secretion of the glucocorticoids is moderately โ†‘ throughout pregnancy. It is possible that these glucocorticoids help mobilize amino acids from the motherโ€™s tissues. ๏ƒ‘ twofold increase in the secretion of aldosterone, reaching a peak at the end of gestation. This, along with the actions of estrogens, reabsorb excess sodium & retain fluid, occasionally leading to PIH.
  • 14. Other Hormones ๏ƒ‘ Secretion by the Thyroid Gland. The motherโ€™s thyroid gland increases its production of thyroxin . The increased thyroxin production is caused at least partly by a thyrotrophic effect of hCG secreted by the placenta and by small quantities of human chorionic thyrotropin, also secreted by the placenta. ๏ƒ‘ Secretion by the Parathyroid Glands. The motherโ€™s parathyroid glands usually enlarge if the mother is on a calcium-deficient diet. Enlargement of these glands causes calcium absorption from the motherโ€™s bones, thereby maintaining normal calcium ion concentration in the motherโ€™s ECF even while the fetus removes calcium to ossify its own bones. ๏ƒ‘ This secretion of parathyroid hormone is even more intensified during lactation after the babyโ€™s birth, because the growing baby requires many times more calcium than the fetus does.
  • 15. Response of the Mother ๏ƒ‘ The uterus increases from about 50 grams to 1100 grams โ€“ hypertrophy, plasia โ€“ connective, elastic tissue ๏ƒ‘ the breasts approximately double in size ๏ƒ‘ the vagina enlarges and the introitus opens more widely ๏ƒ‘ development of pigmentation ๏ƒ‘ Weight Gain Fetus, placenta, fluid Uterus, breast Blood Tissue fluid Fat ๏ƒ‘ ๏ƒ‘ ๏ƒ‘ ๏ƒ‘ ๏ƒ‘ edema, acne โ€“ 12.5 kg โ€“ 4.5 โ€“ 1.5 โ€“ 1.5 โ€“ 1.5 โ€“ 3.5 โ€“ morning sickness โ€“ skin
  • 16. Response of the Mother ๏ƒ‘ Greatly increased desire for food, partly as a result of removal of food substrates from the motherโ€™s blood by the fetus ๏ƒ‘ BMR of the pregnant woman increases about 15 per cent during the latter half of pregnancy - sensations of becoming overheated โ€“ extra load โ€“ extra energy for muscle activity ๏ƒ‘ Deficiencies of calcium, phosphates, iron and vitamins hypochromic anemia ๏ƒ‘ vitamin K is often added to the motherโ€™s diet so that the baby will have sufficient prothrombin to prevent hemorrhage, particularly brain hemorrhage, caused by the birth process
  • 17. Response of the Mother ๏ƒ‘ Increases in CO to 30 to 40 per cent above normal โ€“ extra 625 ml for placenta ๏ƒ‘ Blood volume about 30 per cent above normal during the latter half of pregnancy - aldosterone and estrogens increased fluid retention by the kidneys ๏ƒ‘ Blood ๏ƒ‘ 1 to 2 liters of extra blood in circulatory system โ€“ 1/4th fourth of this amount is normally lost through bleeding during delivery of the baby - safety factor for the mother
  • 18.
  • 19. Response of the Mother ๏ƒ‘ Because of the increased BMR & greater size, the total amount of oxygen used by the mother shortly before birth of the baby is about 20 per cent above normal, and a proportionate amount of carbon dioxide is formed. ๏ƒ‘ These effects cause the motherโ€™s minute ventilation (RMV) to increase. ๏ƒ‘ high levels of progesterone increase the minute ventilation even more, because progesterone increases the respiratory centerโ€™s sensitivity to carbon dioxide. ๏ƒ‘ growing uterus presses upward against the abdominal contents โ€“ diaphragm โ€“ the RR is increased to maintain the extra ventilation.
  • 20. Response of the Mother ๏ƒ‘ The rate of urine formation slightly increased because of increased fluid intake and increased load of excretory products. ๏ƒ‘ renal tubulesโ€™ reabsorptive capacity for sodium, chloride and water is increased as much as 50 per cent ๏ƒ‘ the GFR increases as much as 50 per cent, which tends to increase the rate of water and electrolyte excretion in the urine. ๏ƒ‘ When all these effects are considered, the normal pregnant woman ordinarily accumulates less amount of extra water and salt.
  • 21. Amniotic Fluid ๏ƒ‘ Normally, the volume of amniotic fluid is between 500 milliliters and 1 liter. ๏ƒ‘ water in amniotic fluid is replaced once every 3 hours, and the electrolytes sodium and potassium are replaced an average of once every 15 hours. ๏ƒ‘ A large portion of the fluid is derived from renal excretion by the fetus. a certain amount of absorption occurs by way of the GIT and lungs of the fetus. ๏ƒ‘ even after in utero death of a fetus, some turnover of the amniotic fluid is still present, which indicates that some of the fluid is formed and absorbed directly through the amniotic membranes.
  • 22. Preeclampsia ๏ƒ‘ Rapid rise in arterial blood pressure to hypertensive levels during the last few months of pregnancy. This is also associated with proteinuria. This condition is called preeclampsia or toxemia of pregnancy. ๏ƒ‘ Excess salt and water retention - weight gain โ€“ edema ๏ƒ‘ In addition, there is impaired function of the vascular endothelium, and arterial spasm occurs in many parts of the motherโ€™s body, most significantly in the kidneys, brain, and liver. ๏ƒ‘ Both the RBF and the GFR are decreased ๏ƒ‘ Thickened glomerular tufts that contain a protein deposit in the basement membranes
  • 23. Preeclampsia ๏ƒ‘ 1 theory is that preeclampsia results from some type of autoimmunity or allergy in the mother caused by the presence of the fetus. In support of this, the acute symptoms usually disappear within a few days after birth of the baby. ๏ƒ‘ preeclampsia is initiated by insufficient blood supply to the placenta, resulting in the placentaโ€™s release of substances that cause widespread dysfunction of the maternal vascular endothelium ๏ƒ‘ trophoblasts invade the arterioles of the uterine endometrium and completely remodel the maternal arterioles - maternal arterioles fail to undergo adaptive changes ๏ƒ‘ Inflammatory cytokines such as TNF - alpha and IL - 6.
  • 24. Eclampsia ๏ƒ‘ Eclampsia is an extreme degree of preeclampsia, characterized by vascular spasm throughout the body; clonic seizures in the mother, sometimes followed by coma; ๏ƒ‘ greatly decreased kidney output; malfunction of the liver; often extreme hypertension; and a generalized toxic condition of the body. ๏ƒ‘ It usually occurs shortly before birth of the baby. ๏ƒ‘ Without treatment, a high percentage of eclamptic mothers die. ๏ƒ‘ with optimal and immediate use of rapidly acting vasodilating drugs to reduce the arterial pressure to normal, followed by immediate termination of pregnancy by CS
  • 25. Pregnancy test ๏ƒ‘ Presence of hCG in urine 14 days after conception โ€“ UPT ๏ƒ‘ Immunological ๏ƒ‘ Antiserum from rabbit mixed with urine ๏ƒ‘ No HCG in urine + antiserum + HCG coated latex โ€“ agglutination โ€“ negative UPT ๏ƒ‘ HCG in urine + antiserum + HCG coated latex โ€“ agglutination โ€“ positive UPT ๏ƒ‘ False negative, false positive no
  • 26.