1. TOURISM AND BUSINESS STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF WESTMINSTER
SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
CENTRE FOR TOURISM RESEARCH
DARK TOURISM,
STUDY OF THE PHYSICAL AND PERCEPTIVE
ENVIRONMENT OF SIX DARK SITES IN LONDON
DOROTEYA MILANOVA
BA TOURISM WITH BUSINESS
W1292220
DECLARATION: This is the work of Doroteya Milanova. All the other contributors are
acknowledged in the text and listed in the bibliography.
1|Page

2. Word Count: 13,262
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………………
7
List of Marketing Publications………………………………………………………………..
8
2|Page

3. Site Maps……………………………………………………………………………………...
14
List of Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………...…. 22
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………..
23
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………..24
Introduction………………………….
………………………………………………………...26
1.1 Research Background…………..………………………………………………….. ...26
1.2 Aims and Objectives…..
……………………………………………………………. ..27
1.3 Approach……..………………………………………………………………………. .
27
1.4 Outline………..……………………………………………………………………….. 28
2. Literature Review…………………………………………………………………………. 29
2.1 The dark tourism phenomena…………………………………………………….....
29
2.2 Origins of dark tourism…………………………………………………………...… 32
2.3 Dark sites: What makes a destination dark?..................................................... ……33
2.4 Dark tourism types………………………………………………………………….. .34
2.5 Dark attraction, museum, exhibition profiles…………………………………….. .36
2.6 external and internal features of a successful attraction or museum………… …37
2.7 Marketing…………………………………………………………………………….. .
38
2.8 The attraction perception dimension………………………………………………. 39
2.9 Dark tourism spectrum……………………………………………………………… 42
3. Methodology………………………………………………………………………………. 44
3.1 Research approach……………..……………………………………………………..
44
3.2 Research methodology……..
……………………………………………………… ...44
3.2.1 Secondary research……………………………………………………… …46
3|Page

4. 3.3.2 Primary research………………………………………………………….. ..47
4. Findings……………………………………………………………………………………..
49
4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………... 49
4.2 key features of the six dark sites………………………………………………….... 49
4.2.1 London Bridge Experience and London Tombs…………………….…. 49
4.2.2 London Dungeon……………………………………………………….…. 50
4.2.3 Chamber of Horror at Madame Tussauds……………………………… 51
4.2.4 The Clink prison…………………………………………………………… 52
4.2.5 The IWM in London……………………………………………………….. 53
4.2.6 Chislehurst caves………………………………………………………..…. 54
4.3 Physical Characteristics…………………………………………………………..…. 57
4.4 Perception and Dimension………………………………………………………….. 61
4.4.1 Display and Vision among the six London dark sites…………….…… 61
4.4.2 Hearing and Smell…………………………………………………….…… 63
4.4.3 Touch and Knowledge………………………………………………….…. 65
4.5 Dark characteristics according to the spectrum theory…………………………... 67
4.5.1 Approximate positioning of the dark sites on the spectrum line…...… 70
4.5.2 Senses stimulation in relation to the level of darkness……………..….. 71
4.5.2 Dark Product Display Model……………………………………………... 73
4.6 Discussions of findings…………………………………………………………..….. 74
5. Conclusions and recommendations…………………………………………………..…. 77
5.1 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………..……..
77
5.2 Recommendations……………………………………………………..…………….. 79
5.3 Recommendations for further research…………………….……………………… 80
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………….. 81
Appendix………………………………...…………………………………………………… 89
4|Page

5. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
IWM Imperial War Museum
DT Dark Tourism
BTA British Tourism Authorities
USP Unique Selling Point
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my supervisor Anne Gramm for her support and help. This work
would have been incomplete without the intervention of Miss Amanda Hone. She was a
great source of inspiration and deep understanding of the topic. Finally I wish to thank
Alex for big support and helpful advice.
ABSTRACT
This study followed conducted and detailed analysis of six dark attractions, museums and
5|Page

6. exhibitions in London. The aim was to understand the nature of the dark tourism
phenomena in successful sites in terms of visitor affluence, profitability and general
performance. The research combines theoretical understanding and measurement of the
darkness, and builds up observations upon such statements. In relation to the type of dark
side and level of darkness, attractions museums and exhibitions adopt different approach
towards commercialisation and communication of the environment. The study discovered
that the approach towards death have different aspects and perceptions. The findings
revealed that dark tourism although related to death might provoke different emotions
and encourage mixed feelings.
The methodological model used for this research conducted an open positivist
analysis of existing structures and locations. The research is open to interpretation and
further suggestions and improvements. The deductive (Brotherton, 2008) nature of this
research has drawn conclusions from the general material collected. Based on subjective as
well as objective findings this document has not set up strict patterns, but instead suggests
techniques used by the supply side in order to reach their organisations’ aims and
objectives.
Finally this paper addresses some locations and dark destinations, which have
provoked visitor interest in recent times. Whether their display is following these social
and ethical norms of exploring death and disasters is dubious. This research recommends
careful analysis of the ‘dark’ level saturation and type of dark display before proceeding
towards the display setting. Ultimately the dark tourism industry in many cases is just
another product, which sells and attracts services and products through marketing,
targeting and promotional distribution for lucrative purposes. Using the model proposed
dark sites could carefully decide the use of elements such as light, smell, interaction and
noise, as well as souvenir production and distribution for the dark suppliers to use in
order to operate smoothly in the tourism market, regardless the delicate content of their
offer.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 RESEARCH BACKGROUND
Dark Tourism is not a new trend in the contemporary tourism, however as observed by
6|Page

7. Lennon and Foley (2000) it is an expanding opportunity to create demand for more
tourism attractions, museums and exhibitions. In the last fifty years some unlikely and
aesthetic destinations with an unfortunate background have explored the profitable nature
of the dark tourism trend and have become successful dark tourism destinations
(Auschwitz, Ground Zero) (Novelli, 2005; Joly, 2010; Amin, 1994). Some examples of
popular dark attractions in the UK were the guided tours to observe the Battle of Waterloo
in 1815. People went to watch from a safe distance the on-going conflict (Webber, 1992;
Henderson, 1996). Moreover one of the earliest battlefields of the American Civil War was
sold the next day as an attraction site (Webber, 1992). A few years after the collapse of the
twin towers in New York (result of a terrorist attack), the building’s remains have become
a successful lucrative tourism attraction (Svenstorm, 2008). Other examples if tourist sites
are Chernobyl- 'the Ghost City' open only to visitors (Joly, 2010) in Ukraine, the Killing
Fields in Cambodia or the Paris Catacombs.
Museums, exhibitions and attractions where evidence of death and disaster has
been assembled are known as dark tourism suppliers (Stone, 2005; Hall, 1997). Moreover,
their common theme of display is ‘death’; they have different purposes and perceptions
towards it, and present it to their visitors in antithetic ways. The findings in this research
will give a better understanding of the specific situation, space patterns and underlying
dimensions of various 'dark' sides.
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of this research is to assess the differences between dark tourism attractions,
museums and exhibitions and the characteristics of the contemporary dark display. In
order to achieve this, the study will investigate the following:
 What is the 'dark' supply mixture in London?
 How dark attractions market and promote themselves?
 What their physical environment is like, and how does it serve the organisation’s
aims?
 How they set the perception dimension and why?
 What is the link between level of darkness and 'dark' supplier interpretation?
7|Page

8. 1.3 APPROACH
Firstly the research will analyse the 'dark' offer mixture in London by analysing several
types of attractions and museums. Then it will proceed by interpreting their level of
darkness according to the spectrum line theory (Stone, 2006). Consequently, it will notice
how the suppliers propose their dark product to the audience, with reference to their
purpose, mission and dark saturation. Furthermore themes of exploration will also regard
the environment of the display, perception, proposal and message to the audience. From
the findings it will be possible to analyse the dark contemporary product offered by the
various suppliers.
1.4 OUTLINE
Chapter two will be looking at the dark tourism phenomena and popularity.
Consequently this would bring us back in time, when dark tourism was the ultimate form
of entertainment and amusement. To follow the literature review will analyse the origins
and history of dark tourism phenomena, and the different types of thanatourism (Seaton,
2002). Dark museums, exhibitions and attractions will be briefly defined.
Chapter three will explain how the research will be conducted. The study will use
three different qualitative research methods: participant observations, ethnographic
interviews and content analysis of the communication tools (website, marketing
publications (Clark, Riley, Wilkie, Wood, 1998).
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 THE DARK TOURISM PHENOMENA
Life and death are an integrated part of our reality. People have been exploring the
meaning of these two crucial events throughout history (Starck, 2006). Many books,
theories and studies have been conducted exploring life, its origin, meaning and progress.
So has been done for death. As an inevitable part of our existence, humans have always
been seeking death and exploring it from a safe distance (Tercier, 2005; Dallen et al. 2004).
The reasons behind hunting for places of death could be different. People visiting
cemeteries could be motivated by a desire to memorise and honour deaths, others visiting
8|Page

9. war museums could be driven by a desire to learn about the past and share collective
memory (Keil, 2005). Moreover dungeon visitors could seek thrilling entertainment and so
on. There are all sorts of different reasons, which vary from pursuing knowledge,
memorisation, military, humanitarian or science interests (Body World Exhibition), to
purely fascination with death per se’ (Bockoc, 1993; Seaton, 2006).
For the first time the desire to travel to places of horror and death was defined in
1990 as ''dark tourism'' (Lennon and Foley, 2000). It was noticed that visiting places related
to death and suffering for tourism purposes was a faster growing phenomenon in the late
twenty, century-early twenty first century (Lennon and Foley, 2000). Dark tourism
however is not a recent phenomenon, yet it is seen by many as a growing opportunity for
new business developments as well as alteration for other purposes which will be
analysed later on.
Dark tourism has different definitions and names (thanatourism, black-spots,
macabre, morbid tourism and more) (Rojeck, 1993; Dann, 1994; Blom, 2000). Tarlow (2005)
defines the phenomena as:
''…visitations to places where tragedies or historically noteworthy death has occurred and that
continue to impact on our lives'' (Tarlow, 2005:48).
But dark tourism involves more than only dark, sad, negative and horrible events that
have happened in the past. In fact, visiting the grave of a favourite actor, singer or
historical figure is also considered to be dark tourism, and often is associated with positive
experience.
FIGURE 1
DEATH AND CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY
9|Page

10. (Stone and Sharpley, 2008)
Seaton (1996) argues that thanatourism is dependent on the traveller’s frame of mind. The
thanatourist is a person who travels guided by the desire for actual or symbolic encounters
with death (Tarlow, 2005; Dann and Seaton, 2011).
Stone and Sharpley (2008) have developed a dark tourism consumption model (fig.
1) which is based on the concept that dark tourism is influenced by both the society and
2.2 ORIGINS AND HISTORY OF DARK TOURISM
Although in literature this form of tourism was only defined in 1990 (Foley & Lennon
1996; Lennon & Foley 2000; Seaton 1996), people have been travelling to witness it long
10 | P a g e

11. before then (Schwartz, and Schuman, 2000). Interest in dark tourism has been recorded
since the times of ancient Romans, Greeks, Egyptian and Mayas. The famous Coliseums,
public human and animal sacrifices and executions have attracted a large number of
spectators and participants in the past. There is not a certain period or precise time when
dark tourism started. People have always been travelling to destinations related to death
for one or another reason (Yuill, 2003; Lennon and Foley, 2000). According to Greek
philosophers tragedy was part of people's life. They argued that 'tragedy leads to self-
questioning through the pain of others' (Goldhill, 2004:352). They argue that by watching the
misery of tragic heroes, would lead people to better control and appreciate their lives
(Goldhill, 2004:352). Aristotle, unlike Plato, thought tragedy made the citizen better a man
(Goldhill 2004). As Freud (1984) recognised, there is an Oedipus inside everyone, where
the emotional and the intellectual power of tragedy stems.
In contemporary western society (Lennon and Foley 1998) death seems to be so
surreal that people have a growing interest in discovering the death and places related to
it (Seaton 2009:531). Many authors have searched into the very nature of the 'dark'
motivator (Yuill, 2003), and some have gone deep into the topic starting from analysing
the perception of death in contemporary peoples' reality (Wight, and Lennon, 2004). As a
result of such analysis, dark tourism was thought to be the 'new form of meditating
experience' (Walter, 2009 and Harrison 2003:158), that creates an invisible bridge of
interactions between the dead and the living. This new meditative form of tourism not
only gives to the visitor a physical stimulation of the dead environment, but through
exploration of deathly a person has opportunity to build an ontological meaning, and
reflect on both life and death (Walter, 2009 and Walter, 2005).
The growing popularity of Dark Tourism can be observed in contemporary society
(Winkel, 2001; Lennon & Foley 2000). Some criticise this form tourism commenting that is
disgraceful and unethical (Michael, 2003). However dark tourism could be important too.
Through dark sites, people can explore the darkness of our past, learn from the mistakes of
our ancestors and remember victims. Indeed they display humanity's past and the
tragedies people have been experiencing. Death is an inevitable event in everyone's life
and travelling to discover it and learn about it is one of the oldest forms of tourism in
human history (Seaton 1999; Stone 2006). The thanatouristic product is now being
classified in order to satisfy the needs of contemporary society and suit their wants
11 | P a g e

12. through careful physical and perceptive design. The examples which will be looked at are
the practical representation of such phenomena.
2.3 DARK SITES : WHAT MAKES A DESTINATION /SITE DARK?
According to the definition of dark tourism and Michael's (2003) criticisms only places
related to torture, death and disaster qualify as dark tourism destinations. This is however
debatable as many monuments and cemetery (Miles, 2002) also are dark destinations (as
well as doomsday destinations) and they are not related to a horrible death and torture
and can deliver highly positive and happy experience (Blom, 2000). Some examples are the
Pete Lachaise Cemetery in Paris where Oscar Wide, Ghopin and Jim Morrison are buried.
The cemetery is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Paris, providing satisfying
experiences for the people who chose to visit it (Tarlow, 2005). Another form of dark site
could be a construction or architecture, which reminds people of death (Tanas, 2006; Rojek
and Urry 1997). A notable example is 'Bone Church' in Kutna Hora near Prague (Outside
Prague, 2010). The building decorated with human bones aims to remind people the
significance of life, and the inevitable death (Outside Prague, 2010).
So, what makes an attraction/site dark is not just horrible evidence of death. Dark
sites are places where evidence of death is presented. Recent research argue that dark sites
can be labelled as 'darker' (Auschwitz) or lighter (cemeteries, dungeons) in relation to their
perceived ideological, temporal and spatial product features (Stone, 2006).
2.4 DARK TOURISM TYPES
Before starting the examination of the selected dark sites in London it important to define
the different types of dark tourism first. Stone’s (2006) suggests that there are seven types
of dark suppliers: dark fun factories, dark exhibitions, dark dungeons, dark resting places,
dark shrines, dark conflict sites and dark camps of genocide (Stone, 2006:23). He
categorises the thanatourism offer in relation to the dark product content. Sean (1996)
however subdivides them in five branches in relation to the death occurrence and peoples'
motivations. Sean argues that some people travel to watch death (public hangings and
executions); others travel to sites after death has occurred (Auschwitz); some other reasons
12 | P a g e

13. for travel would be to internment sites and memorials (graves and monuments). In
addition many others would be driven by the desire to visit historical re-enactments (Civil
War re-enactment), where participants would attempt to re-create the historical event or
period in order to make the experience more vivid and graphic to the visitor (Smith, 1996).
Moreover, there is the dark tourism travel to synthetic sites at which evidence of the death
has been assembled (museums). Finally there are the deadly fun factories (Dann, 1998):
perilous places, houses of horror, fields and fatality, tours of torments and themed
thanatos. This simple subdivision narrows down the most popular dark tourism
attractions and gives them a specific title which allows the visitor to choose what's more
appropriate for them and how the attraction supplier should design its product in order to
guarantee satisfaction.
The grounds for promoting dark destinations are different: cultural, curiosity or
simply new commercial opportunity and more (Trend, 2003). Often misery and fear are
being purposely developed and the death is being exploited as a result of a new marketing
idea in order to satisfy the market demand (Fun Factories) (Wight, 2008). Often dark
tourism is criticised by society too, the dark display is difficult for a person to comprehend
and understand (Swarbrooke, 2001). However, the visitor should be able to decide
whether they like it, and would they tolerate it or not by analysing the promotional
publications created by the suppliers. Bearing in mind the delicacy of the product type
most suppliers have adopted an unwritten set of rules which make the site socially
acceptable (Sharpley 1999).
Ultimately the Dark Tourism sector could be seen as an open umbrella. Dark
tourism offers a number of different destinations, sites, exhibitions and museums to
visitors, whom all have their own perceptions of the place (Wight and Lennon, 2004).
Death can occur in a different ways and therefore the experience which the visitor would
perceive will be different when visiting a cemetery, or a concentration camp, or from
visiting London Dungeon.
Dark sites tend to differentiate from each other not only in relation to their different
level of dark saturations, but also in terms of display, popularity, layout, perception and
marketing communication. Accordingly, Dark Tourism has been subdivided in different
categories, according to the level of darkness and nature of the supplier’s mission
(Krishenblatt-Gimblett, 1997). Given the complexity of the dark tourism phenomena, the
13 | P a g e

14. dark product has been designed by the various suppliers according to the level of scene,
the darkness saturation and the historical background of the display (Stone, 2005).
Assuming that visiting ‘London Dungeon’ would create a different understanding of
darkness compared to the IWM is possible, although they are both dark tourism suppliers.
This suggests that darker and lighter paradigm does exist within the dark tourism
industry (Stone and Mile, 2002).
2.5 DARK ATTRACTION , MUSEUM, EXHIBITION PROFILES
During the long existence of dark tourism, not all issues related to dark tourism have been
researched and explored. London is experiencing the benefits of the dark tourism
phenomena through creating successful attractions, exhibitions and museums related to
death (Holt, 1995).
An attraction, museum or exhibition could be the reason for someone to visit
certain place (Lennon and John 2001; Lee 2002). Often people visit destination just because
the place is famous of having a unique and rare feature (Harvey, 1996). The attractive force
could have a very broad form and characteristics. It could be a building, an open space
attraction with natural features; it could be the environmental or the constructional sense
of the place (Bocock, 1993). Ultimately a place could be attracting visitors with a
combination of environmental perceptions (Bell et al., 1990:27). Middleton (2001) states
that an attraction is a permanent resource controlled and managed that would help to
attract, entertain and educate visitors. BTA (British Tourism Authority, 2010) confirms
such statement adding that in retails, shopping, theatrical, film and sport venues are also
part of the attraction sector. Finally, BTA (2010) suggests that attractions should be open
public places where tourists, day visitors and local residents can visit without booking in
advance. In relation to these statements Yale (1998) argues that such definition is too
generic and a tourism attraction not only could be designated, but they could also be non-
permanent. For instance the changing of the royal guards in London are an example of a
'regular' tourist attraction and not 'permanent' (Yale, 1998:177). A museum on the other
hand is defined as:
'a permanent establishment in the public interest with a view to conserve, study, exploit by
14 | P a g e

15. various means, and public interest with a view to conserve, study, exploit by various means, and
basically to exhibit for the pleasure and education of the public objects of cultural value'
(International Counsel of Museums, quoted by Hudson 1975).
Attractions, exhibitions and museums tend to be created in order to serve society in
different ways: to educate, entertain, attract more visitors to the destination and making
profits (Hudson, 1975).
2.6 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL IMPORTANT FEATURES OF A SUCCESSFUL ATTRACTION
OR MUSEUM
There are several important elements for the functionality of a well performing dark site.
The first one is location within the city (Law, 1994). Many tourists would visit London for
its package of different offers. If the dark attraction is in a central and cosmopolitan area it
is more likely to attract walk-in visitors who are not necessarily dark travellers. The
attraction needs to be easily accessible by foot, road, private and public transport.
Moreover, the ever expanding visibility in a display site has encouraged a coherent
'legible' set of symbols, messages and perception displays, turning the display into 'talking
environments' (Dicks, 2003). Harvey (1996) argues that the success is achieved through
getting people to queue up in order to see the display offered by the site supplier and then
report the experience to others and attract further visitors.
Presenting objects and displaying some visual information from behind a glass is no
longer attractive to visitors (Lloyd, 1988; Urri, 1995; Linenthat, 1995). The contemporary
museums, attractions and exhibitions had to adapt to technologically developed society in
order to keep visitor affluence and interest. Most sites have been supplemented through
the use of digital technology, which would allow the exhibitors to expand the
communication process (Hewison, 1989), and propose the content in more dynamic way.
Contemporary museums and attractions are very competitive for visitors. They rely on
distinguishing themselves in order to bring in their respective audiences (Dicks, 2003).
Being an important part of the life of the community, they have to prove themselves and
assure their place as part of city’s tourism resources (Hewison, 1989). The market
demands that museums become part of the leisure and tourism industry with
15 | P a g e

16. entertainment an essential part of the product (Hewison, 1989; Trend, 2003; Freeman,
2005). Technology, audio-visual presentations, and actors are some of the elements dark
attractions and museums have adopted in their product design.
2.7 MARKETING
In addition to the physical changes, sites have also developed an intense marketing
presence in order to compete with others, and attract visitors. Museums and attractions
are more veritable and more communicative (Dicks, 2003), involving and supporting more
departments such as marketing, advertising and promotion. Macdonald (1998) notes that
museums, exhibitions and attractions had to adapt to the respective market audience and
to what they would buy (Macdonald, 1998). More efforts are made in actions such as
building 'brands', identifying 'unique selling points' and establishing a strong 'corporate
image' and 'market niche' (Macdonald, 1998:118). More features have been added to the
interior building design, such as shops, cafés and interactive rides, in order to increase the
visitor spending and satisfaction.
Additionally market segmentation is vital in order to create a display which would
match the audience’s needs and wants (Davies, 1994). Because the audience is fragmented,
the site should adopt separated displays and facilities for all segments (Lovelock, 1984). In
museums, exhibitions and attractions this is achieved by setting separated and temporary
displays (Brunt, 1997). Specific temporary exhibitions also attract niche markets, which
would increase site diversification, and visitor attraction (McLean, 1997). Finally, due to
the competitive market environment of London’s environment, dark sites have had to
adopt a unique approach towards their offering which would differentiate (Kotler, 1967)
from the competitors. Accordingly each one of the organisations discussed in this paper
has specialised in a different area of the ‘dark’ concept, and compete through
differentiation and specialisation (Kotler, 1967). The consumer is paramount in the concept
of marketing, therefore meeting the target audience’s needs and desires while satisfying
the organisational goals is the core mission to any marketing strategy (McLean, 1997).
This point highlights the changes of the display introduced by contemporary society and
its demanding needs. In addition to the physical and visual changes of the contemporary
16 | P a g e

17. museums, dark sites had to adopt business strategies and marketing concepts in their
product offer in order to reach a competitive advantage over others.
2.8 THE ATTRACTION PERCEPTION DIMENSION
Differentiating is a long process of setting features, elements and models unique to the
given site. Offering the visitor a satisfying experience could be achieved in different ways.
Law (1994) discusses the importance of perception and emotional experience as essential
dimensions of the tourism product. Death, horror and violence are provoked by strong
emotions (Ashworth, and Hartmann, 2005), therefore, tend to remind a memorable
experience in the human minds. Being a passive observer of such extreme human actions
make the visitor experience feelings which vary from one individual to another.
Environment perception is stimulated by use of senses stimulation such as sight, sound
smell, touch and all that is around us (Bell et al., 1990) in order to reproduce scenes and
encourage emotions.
Before analysing the design environment in the sites it is important to understand
what the human senses are, and how they affect our perceptions and emotions. Along
with the concept of perception the sites inevitably have been designed to deliver certain
emotions and sensations as well (Frey, 2006). Sensation refers to each individual's sensory
system and the way in which they would react on the environmental stimuli varies (Law,
1994). There are four elements stimulating the human senses: vision, hearing, smell and
touch. In addition there is knowledge which determines the level of fear (vital response to
physical and emotional danger) and emotions (Psychology Today, 2012). The four senses
have impacts on the peoples' experience and they will interpret the product in assorted
ways according to the individual’s perceptions and past experiences.
Our vision is a source of information which dominates the rest of the senses (Dicks,
2003). Visual perception is highly complex and an essential element of the product on offer
in museums and attractions (Porteous, 1996:3). Darkness creates a sense of isolation and
disorientation (Tuan, 1979). Lighting is a one of the basic elements of the display settings.
It not only is used for illuminating the areas and the objects, but also creates atmosphere
(Frey, 2006). The level of light saturation needs to serve the display requirements and
aims. Lighting derives from different sources: natural, electric, visual media, projectors
17 | P a g e

18. and so on. This should also be arranged in order to fit with the exhibition content and the
design functionality. Each type of light creates a different perception of the environment.
For instance natural light creates a freer and friendlier and more spatial perception of the
environment, and a connection with the external space (Frey, 2006). Contrarily darker
illumination, electric, flashing or coloured lightening effects could provoke more
oppressive perception of the environment.
Hearing could be perceived to be informatively poor, but an emotionally rich sense
(Porteous 1996:3). Hearing words brings clear precise information, while hearing noises
bring a whole range of associations stored in our brains. New research has shown that
animal noises encourage fear and influence human emotions on a primal level (Vegas,
2010).
Smell sometimes similar to hearing produces memories and feelings and some are
vague (subject to personality: some people might like petrol smell because their brain
associates it to a pleasant moment, perhaps travelling). Although in humans the sense of
smell is not the best developed one, it plays an important role in environmental perception
and emotions. Touch also helps us feel and perceive the physical environment around us.
Being able to touch makes things appear more real: “The sensibility of the individual to the
world adjacent to his body by use of his body" (Gibson, 1966:118).
Also there is knowledge, which interacts with the human sense of fear and
emotions. People could associate objects, smells and environments with their past
experiences and trigger a certain positive, negative or neutral emotion as a response
(Psychology Today, 2012). Being aware of the tragedy and the circumstances makes the
visitor experience more intense and also the other way round. The fear of not knowing
brought people to develop superstitions, which are the human attempt to create an
illusion of predictability in an uncertain environment (Tuan, 1979).
All five elements form the basics of the human experiences work as ingredients
which are then mixed and matched in different measurements and characterise the very
nature of the dark attraction or museum.
The attractions and museums analysed in this research have recognised the importance of
the environmental context and in relation to their level of darkness have adopted such
stimulation in an adequate way (Moscardo and Ballantyne, 2008). Recreation of human
18 | P a g e

19. misery and horror seems to be contradictive; linking violence with entertainment even
disgraceful and unethical, and yet such dark sites attract hundreds of visitors each day. In
the next chapters it will be seen how these sites manage to do this and what are their
criteria and limits while setting a dark exhibition.
2.9 DARK TOURISM SPECTRUM
Before proceeding with the analysis of the dark sites, however, it is vital for this research
to reference the dark spectrum theory (Stone, 2006). Recent studies show that the level of
darkness is one of the fundamental elements of dark tourism supply characteristics
(Strange and Kempa, 2003). It involves the level of darkness in the dark tourism site: the
fundamental division between death as fiction or as a tragic reality.
The spectrum line (figure 2) divides the ‘dark sites’ in relation to their perceived
ideological, political, temporal and location product features. The shades saturate from the
right (lighter) to the left (darker): darkest, darker, dark, light, lighter and lightest (Stone,
2006). The darker shades of the spectrum are associated with more recent dark sites and
events. In the darkest dimension are noted ‘places of death’ rather than places associated
with death (Stone, 2006). In relation to these it is assumed that none of the dark attractions
involved in this research have the darkest position in the spectrum.
Stone (2008) suggests that product display authenticity, political relevance and a
shorter time scale of the event are all characteristics of the darker side. In this context
authenticity does not appeal to the quality or experience of a place, but the relationship
between the visitor and his/her perception of the surrounding (Wang, 1999; Olsen, 2002).
What the visitor perceives as authentic is the link created between the displayed and the
own understanding of the world and society (Cohen, 1988). Authenticity is therefore hard
to measure. However Lennon and Foley (2000) suggest that authenticity in the dark
tourism site prospective refers to the originality of the material displayed.
As Lennon and Foley (2000) stated the 'chronological distance is a vital characteristic of
the dark tourism destination'. The reason for that is that the event might still be fresh in the
mind of survivors and witnesses of the tragedy, which automatically makes the
destination ''darkest'' (Miles, 2002). Authentic locations and original objects, displays of
recent reliable and political elements are features of the darker saturation of a site (Stone,
19 | P a g e

20. 2006). Meanwhile lower political ideology, inauthentic product content and location as
well as a long period of time since the event took place are features attributed to the more
relaxed and fun orientated dark sides. Stone, and Sharpley, (2008) argues that lighter dark
attractions are entertainment orientated, meanwhile the darkest aim to teach and educate.
Some examples of a darkest product side according to the spectrum theory are Auschwitz
or Ground zero, where the issue is related to a recent historical event and the topic is still
very painful (Shackley, 2001). Here, the level of authenticity (evidence in documents and
pictures that witness the disaster) is a key element of the display. Ultimately the display is
located in the original place where the tragic event took place is also quoted as adding
darkness to the attraction, museum or exhibition (Macdonald 1997:156-157). Displays with
such dark characteristics often aim to encourage remembrance, commemoration and
education. They are usually set for non-profit purposes and might be established by larger
organisations such as the government. Places where dark elements such as death, misery
and torture are a lot more real (based on facts, documents and pictures of real people)
have higher levels of darkness.
On the other hand, according to the dark tourism spectrum theory, sometimes
places with dark content which appeal to human fears and emotions, have little to no
authenticity and are politically irrelevant. These are the attractions created by independent
profit orientated organisations in order to entertain children and adults (Seaton and
Lennon, 2004).
FIGURE 2
DARK TOURISM SPECTRUM LINE
20 | P a g e

21. (Stone, Vol. 54, No. 2/ 2006/ 145-160).
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 RESEARCH APPROACH
The previous chapter provided a critical analysis of the literature available on the topic.
21 | P a g e

22. Along with the literature review in order to research the issue this paper is concerned with
an in-depth investigation of the collected data (Cameroon & Price, 2009).
Literature suggests that there are different paradigms of research: positivism, realism,
interpretivism and pragmatism (Saunders and Lewis, 2003). This study used a gnostic
critical realism and realist research methodological approaches, where seeking systematic
knowledge of the world is analysed, but value that is caused by subjectivity (Gill and
Johnson, 2002:138). Using a critical realism approach means that there is an objective
world, and the idea that our understanding of it can only be subjective and never objective
or definite. Findings are gained through personal struggle, challenge and diversity
(Pageles, 1982; Miles and Huberman, 1994).
3.2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
There has been a mixture of research techniques used in order to analyse the dark offer.
Secondary findings have involved the use of books, journals, reports and online
information (websites, blogs and forums). Primary research has included qualitative
techniques such as observation and in-depth interviews. The reason why qualitative
techniques were preferred was because they are more likely to provide a deeper
understanding of the design offer (Burns, 2000; Finn et al. 2000). Finally observing,
communicating and analysing findings helped to find associations and patterns (Gambril,
2006; Tribe and Airey, 2007).
Qualitative research is designed to use systematic observation and focuses on the
design and environmental settings of the dark exhibitions. This paper investigates the
dark attractions features and produced perceptions using several qualitative methods:
interviews, observations and text sources (websites and marketing publications).
The reasons why these dark sites were chosen over others are various. Firstly they
represent the intensity and the popularity of this form of tourism in the UK’s capital. They
all offer a dark product to their visitors, however in a very diverse way from one another
way. The sites share success in terms of visitor affluence and touristic recognition (Merlin
Entertainments, 2009). Ultimately they all share rich history and heritage as a primary
background. From a practical point of view, all six of them are located in London and are
22 | P a g e

23. easily accessible.
3.2.1. Secondary Research
The physical characteristics of the buildings have been analysed by obtaining a floor plan,
and by visiting them personally. In some cases it was not possible to attain maps due to
‘security’ reasons; therefore similar floor plans were drawn. Maps reveal the design of the
visitor’s path and how this becomes more linear and restrictive within certain attractions.
Additionally the business missions of the organisations have been analysed through
marketing promotional publications, websites, journals and other media.
3.3.2. Primary Research
a) Observations
In order to conduct the research a visit was paid to each destination from where it was
possible to analyse the structure and the design of the sites. Using a check-list (see
appendix) each site was observed and analysed in terms of the building’s physical
structure and the different displays and rooms’ atmosphere.
b) Interviews
To better understand the purpose some interviews were also held with representatives of
the dark tourism industry. The interviews were collected using a recording device and
with some notes taken during the interview. Coding was difficult, and unsuitable.
Nevertheless, Saunders et al. (2007) argues that there is no coding system when analysing
qualitative data. In relation to this statement the research was based on a manual open
coded system (Neuman, 2003).
Finally, the research strategy used in this research is inductive rather than deductive.
Inductive research consists of theory building rather than theory testing which is
deductive (Phelan & Reynolds, 1995). However inductive reasoning uses a different
method than deductive thinking (Gambril, 2006). With deductive reasoning one may have
23 | P a g e

24. a hypothesis that is an observed event, sequence of events and a conclusion (Gambril,
2006; Cameron et al. 2009). Ultimately deduction interferes with generalised rules (Hart,
1998:82), relying on facts and different arguments (Gambril, 2006).
4. FINDINGS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Observations were combined with interviews here. The semi-structured interviews leave
freedom to the respondent to interpret the question in their own way. The interviewee is
asked to think of the situation and draw conclusions. The interview questions focus
perceptions of the environment. The core issues are analysed through six subcategories:
physical layout and mobility, sight, hearing, smell, touch and knowledge.
4.2 Key Features of the Six Dark Sites
4.2.1. LONDON TOMBS
The following findings have been based on 8 days personal experience within the London
Tombs experience. During the time being there were held several informal interviews with
the general manager Mr James Kislingbury and some employees. From this experience it
was discovered that the attraction is an independent profitable organisation held by few
shareholders. The general manager was in charge of the staff and was also responsible for
the smooth performance of the shows.
The attraction runs shows every day and occasionally during their peak times they
are also run till at late night (Halloween till 11 pm). The attraction has some degree of
authenticity (original location); however, there is no proof of actual death within the
rooms. In the past London Bridge was unsafe with a poor reputation, where many
civilians have found their death (several death bodies have been found during the
construction of the bridge) (Kislingbury, 2011).
The product is designed to frighten almost anyone as there is a vast range of the
most common phobia elements (dark space, fake snakes, blade, dolls and more). The
entertaining aspect of it is to let imagination control human feelings, and knowing that
24 | P a g e

25. nothing bad would actually happen as it is all false.
The London Experience and London Tombs have well developed infrastructure and
tourist facilities (Kislingbury, 2011). The visitors are always guided by a member of staff
and the duration of the visit lasts around 40 minutes (optional exit before the Tombs is
provided).
The attraction is highly marketed and promoted to the UK and overseas visitors in
numerous media publications: Time Out (magazine and web); London Tour and London
Map and others. Moreover the attraction collaborates with several other organisations:
Groupon, Tesco Clubcard, Moneysaving.com, The London Pass, 2 for 1 London,
Smartsave and more. Finally the dark site is a winner of several dark attraction rewards:
• ''UK's best scare attraction for the last 3years'';
• Winner of "The Best Year round Scare Attraction" (Scream Awards, 2008)
• `Finalist in "Most Innovative Marketing" British Youth Travel Awards 2009 (Scream
Awards, 2009).
4.2.2. LONDON DUNGEON
In 1995, 610,000 people visited the London Dungeon (Yale, 1998). The product revolves
around a story of London during its dark ages, and displays this using an interactive,
three-dimensional, interactive environment.
London Dungeon is a commercially orientated tourism attraction (main reason for
being is to create profits) run by Merlin Entertainment Group. The design used offers
more graphic features and almost playful atmosphere. The attraction offers a wide range
of facilities, infrastructure, technological, visual and vocal devices which would enhance
the visitor experience and make it more enjoyable (check-list, 2011). In order to facilitate
and regulate as well as to restrict the length of the visit they have adopted a linear route
structure which will be discussed in more detail in the following chapter. The high degree
of tourism infrastructure on the outside of the attractions is also designed to accommodate
a high volume of visitors.
4.2.3. CHAMBER OF HORROR AT MADAME TUSSAUDS
Madame Tussauds-Chamber of Horror is one of the most well-known London tourist
25 | P a g e

26. attractions. Here only one part of the tourist attraction has been mentioned, (The Camber
of Horror only dark display within a bigger tourist exhibition). The museum-style ropes
and poles have been visited by over 200 million visitors since it began 200 years ago
(Madame-Tussauds, 2011), and with current visitor affluence of over 2.5 million people a
year visit.
One of the first dark exhibitions in London was presented by Madame Tussauds when she
arrived to England from Curtius (France). The Tussauds collection was presenting historic
artefacts alongside some other wax figures, so objects were purchased to go in the
Chamber of Horrors. The exhibition progressed by showing a story of a crime in 1981. This
was the first recorded simulation of a crime rather than being a real scenario for
entertainment purposes (Yale, 1998).
Ultimately they added special effects, lightening and mechanical spiders to make
the attraction more stimulating. The exhibitors came up with the idea of regrouping the
murderers according to the type of crime they had committed and add decorative
elements such as coffins, bars and fake blades (check-list, 2011).
The exhibition belongs to the Merlin Entertainment Group, which is probably why
the features and the character of it remind of London Dungeon. The building consists of
upper site construction and numerous underground rooms and corridors. The Chamber of
Horror is designed to flow in one and only direction for all visitors. The underground is
reached by stairs from the main Madame Tussaud’s exhibition (which is not dark). Their
inglorious aspect communicates to the visitor ''to be prepared for a trilling experience''
(Chamber of Horror, 2011). The dark exhibition might not be appealing to everyone,
therefore the building is provided by one other corridor which would lead to the exit.
4.2.4. THE CLINK PRISON
The Clink prison is built upon the original site of the Clink Prison. The site dates back to
1144 making it one of England’s oldest prisons (Clink Prison, 2011). The highly visited
attraction offers an educational experience allowing visitors to handle original artefacts,
including torture devices (checklist, 2012). The exhibition has been made even more
credible and realistic by the wax figures placed behind bars and under the torture
26 | P a g e

27. machines. Ultimately the product is enhanced by audio and sound effects. Visitors have
the opportunity to view and hear the stories of the inmates and Southbank. There is not
much to say about the design of the place, as it was not designed to be a tourist attraction
at the time. The narrow, dark and small rooms of the prisons were designed to keep
criminals out the streets of London. The path therefore is simple linear and with not too
many exits (Clink Prison, 2011).
4.2.5. The Imperial War Museum in London
The London IWM brunch is located in Elephant and Castle area. The museum which
displays war related artefacts, documents, pictures, objects, stories, monuments of
conflicts, death and tragedy is a highly authentic and reliable source of European dark
history (Collections and Research 2011). The museum contains the England's largest
display of military artefacts, ranging in period from the First World War to the present
day. The first impression of the character and authenticity of the display could be
perceived from the very outside of the building. In fact on the left side of the main stairs
there is a real segment of the Berlin Wall (IWM, 2011).
The exhibition starts with a display of war machines mainly from the first and
Second World War (tanks, rackets, submarines and small aircraft). They are all located in
one big round space right after the entrance. On the left side of the main room there is a
27 | P a g e

28. children exhibition ''Once upon a War Time'' which is paid for: £5 (Collections and
Research 2011). On the same side next to the paid exhibition there is a cafeteria and a gift
shop on the opposite site of the ground floor. This first part of the exhibitions is more
commercialised compared to the rest of the museum.
Visitors have the chance to customise their visit and choose where to go and what
to see, which differs from London Dungeon where people were walking into groups
through the linear and straight path of the horror museum. The Holocaust exhibition is
one of the darkest displays in the museum, and it is not advisable for people under 14
focusing on the Jewish persecution in Europe during the Second World War.
The exhibition's layout starts with written testimonials of people's and religious believes
about the 'danger' Jewish people were for Europe. The evidence stretches to vocal
testimonial by showing a video of Hitler himself and his speeches in front of the German
population. Following the path, the display becomes even more visually saturated
(people’s pictures, objects, symbols). On display are medical tables, real shoes from the
concentration camps, and a reconstruction of the inside of the trains people were
transported to the concentration camps. The next room presents a model of Auschwitz. A
record of survivors plays in the background of the room (checklist, 2012) while visitors are
allowed to go inside, touch and spend some time if they want to, or sit down and listen to
the victim’s stories. The display continues onto 'inside the camp experience'. Clothes,
shoes, cookery and other belongings of the imprisoned people were collected and
displayed here. The exhibition ends with a long list of names of people who lost their lives
in the camps across Europe.
The museum measures their success in many different ways:
‘visitor figures, income, profile raising, media coverage, development of museum audiences etc’
(Gilbert, 2012).
4.2.6. CHISLEHURST CAVES
The caves of Chislehurst are a deep and very ancient man made set of tunnels located in
the south-east of London: The 20 mile cave systems are believed to be around 8,000 years
28 | P a g e

29. old. According to scientific findings there are reminders from Saxon, Druid and Roman
civilizations. Chislehurst caves therefore are rich in history and many different activities
were held in its cold dark underground. The caves were initially dug for the generous
amount of chalk in the ground used in the production of lime, as well as brick making for
the building purposes (Chislehurst caves, 2010). Several researches have concluded that
the caves were used for human sacrifices in the oldest parts of the site. Other believes
suggests that there is paranormal presence too. In the most recent history the site used to
host people during the Second World War. The site visual display (wax figures, beds)
represents the human presence in the caves during the Blitz (checklist, 2012).
The underground is today open to tourist to explore with an experienced guide.
The caves offer a thrilling and educative experience. The attraction’s aim is to make profits
in a long term. They measure their success in terms of visitor affluence and profits (Terry,
2011).
To conclude this section it can be said that the dark supply in London is a well-developed
and diversified sector of the tourism industry in the city. Nevertheless many more dark
suppliers are available in London: Jack the Ripper or Ghost Tours; The Brain Exhibition;
DT Hotels; DT walks, and so on.
The organisational purposes and missions have been summarised in table 1 (see list
of marketing publications p.6). Additionally promotional publications and visual material
are presented in 'marketing publication' section at the end of this paper.
4.3. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
While the previous section analysed the general aspects and missions of the various sites,
the following paragraph will aim to look deeper into the physical design of the buildings.
The physical place hosting the exhibition, attraction or museum could be the original place
where the event took place (Clink Prison), or it could be purpose built (Imperial War
Museum). In addition to the original building design, a team of designers decide the
internal path and mobility. Their style of set and layout reflect the character, purpose and
aims. Gilbert (2012) suggests that in any exhibition the design will prompt certain feelings.
29 | P a g e

30. These are often determined by the nature of the display. The senior exhibition manager
suggests here that the exhibition layout depends on the type of product rather than
organisational wants.
The entrance space in many of the visited dark sites was brighter and spacious compared
to the rest of the building. For instance in the Imperial War Museum, the ground floor
consists of a wide open space from where the visitor can choose their path. The luminosity
is well saturated throughout the whole entry space. Gilbert (2012) recommends that by
providing this atmosphere the museum wants to create a welcoming environment for
visitors as soon as they enter the building:
‘This is achieved through staff, graphics, decorations and lighting. The main atrium space
containing the large exhibits was intended to provide a strong visual impact for visitors when they
first enter the museum.’
A similar welcome effect was used by Clink Prison, Madame Tussauds and Chamber of
Horror and Chislehurst Caves: the brighter, open space.
Before progressing towards the darkest areas the sites usually warn the visitors using
different methods. These could include signs or symbols (child experimentation table in
the Holocaust exhibition symbolically warns the visitors that they are for about to enter a
more saturated dark area), (Howsen, 2012). Other sites use verbal communication (before
entering London Tombs). Finally a physical separation (by doors, stares or panels) is a sign
of dividing the areas from one dimension to another.
New musicological designers who have applied freedom of access can be seen as
reflecting upon what they feel are the needs, wants and expectations of the visitor.
Linearity is very limited in some attractions such as the London Dungeon, London
Experience and Chamber of Horror. Inside the Chamber of Horror, for instance, there is a
lack of free exploration within the building, and this is a direct result of the way in which
the basement site was made: as categorically linear way as possible. Similarly the London
30 | P a g e

31. Experience and the London Tombs have a one way corridor path conducted by a number
of different guides (actors) along the way. The reason for this is to be able to accommodate
large number of visitors (see map). On busy days there is one actor in each corridor who
takes over the visitor group and conducts them as quickly as possible, so the next group
can come through (Kryonika, 2011). In terms of architectural interaction the building is
somewhat limited and people cannot choose a highly customised route. Chislehurst Caves
have a big space, which could be potentially freely explored by the visitors. However due
to the huge size of the underground and lack of visibility and other infrastructure facilities
inside, not many would choose not to follow the experienced guide conducting the visit
(Terry, 2011).
While these sites are very limited in terms of free exploration and mobility during the
visit, the Imperial War Museum and the Clink Prison offer a lot more freedom of
exploration and time availability inside the site. Visitors are free to customise their
experience by deciding which path to take and which room to visit. They have the
opportunity to ask information along the way from one of the many museum curators or
read to information boards present along the way. The dark site offers to everyone a
lighter war experience to progress further up to a more detailed and darker evidence of
death during war times. In addition to offer visitors a positive and welcome initial impact,
the contrast between the ground floor and the rest of the dark exhibitions would also help
to maximise the ‘horror’ impact of the darker exhibitions (Howsen, 2012). On the ground
floor there is a lot of freedom of mobility, while this becomes more restricted and linear in
the Holocaust exhibition. Gilbert (2012) suggested that:
‘’Each exhibition is looked at individually at the design stage. Depending on the narrative of the
exhibition we decide how best to present this to visitors, this will determine whether we agree a
linear route or a more free flowing exhibition’’.
This recommends that there is a link between the nature of the exhibition and the physical
set. From several observations it could be suggested and concluded that the darker
31 | P a g e

32. product would require more straight forward linear path which would involve the visitor
more closely with the display.
In some sites the linearity was encouraged by the suppliers for another purpose too:
to increase visitor flow and minimise time circulation. This would allow higher visitor
capacity and consequently more profits too (Mears, 2011). This characteristic was mainly
noted in highly commercialised dark attractions such as London Dungeon, London
Experience and Chamber of Horror. Here little or none recreational facilities were
available. These attractions offer no space for people to stop and look around for longer. In
fact the space's profitability was related to the time and space. More visitors consuming
less time within the attraction would open more space for new visitors to enter (Mears,
2011). On a busy day London Experience would have a group of around ten visitors every
twenty minutes. These groups would never meet (Kryonica, 2011).
In conclusion to this point it can be said that the organisation’s purpose, mission and
needs are main elements in determining the structural design. These concerns are founded
in things such as the specific type of museum in question, and the way in which the
market demand has influenced and constructed the conscious orientation of the design
team. Dark attractions tend to have more structured and linear routes, which could allow
high visitor circulation throughout the day. When one of the mission statements of the
organisation states ‘make profits’, then the physical design of the sites tends to be as space
productively as possible. Meanwhile organisations which states ‘educational’ as one of the
main statements of their missions tend to offer more freedom of internal and external
mobility.
4.4. PERCEPTION AND DIMENSION
32 | P a g e

33. 4.4.1. Display and Vision among the Six London Dark Sites
In the contemporary society, display has become increasingly prominent for both
attractions and exhibitions. Visitors will research through the media and visual
information in order to decide whether they want to visit (Mears, 2011). The visual
information communicates the type of site, the level of dark saturation, and the kind of
experience the visitors should expect from it (Mears, 2011).
London Experience and London Dungeon display their product in a visually
interactive way making it appear more dynamic and exiting. Instead of locking the
medieval clothes and object behind glasses, they have incorporated them into the
environment. The whole visual display becomes part of a recreated reality. No single
object (in the attractions) is in a formal display frame presented, but scenes, landscapes,
faces, characters and actions are recreated.
The ‘darker’ areas of the (London Tombs, Chamber of Horror, some areas of the Clink
Prison) attractions use stimulating light and colour effects. Flashing light tends to
discomfort a person’s sensations and leads to disorientation and possible rise in the
perceiver’s emotions (Hone, 2011). In the attempt to create fearful feeling has been
enhanced by displaying revolting for the contemporary society elements such as fake
blade, silicon masks, was figures with missing heads or legs, fake snakes, spiders and
human bones. In London Tombs light is low, while in London Dungeon the sight is
restricted (in some rooms to the minimum), provoking emotional reactions (Hone, 2011).
While areas or sites, which aim to recreate the environment (IWM, Chislehurst Caves,
parts of London Dungeon, London Experience and Clink Prison), rather than to provoke
strong emotions tend to use light which would have been used at the time of the ‘dark’
historical moment. Chislehurst Caves use original gas lamps as it was during the blitz, to
then use no light at all, during the more remote and ancient ages. During the first part of
the display the attraction illuminates the underground with additional electric lights,
where visitors can visualise the evidence of people living in the undergrounds during the
Blitz. In the second part of the walk however visitors are asked to give their candles away
and remind in the complete darkness for several minutes. The complete lack of light, feels
highly uncommon to the contemporary person, which also provokes mixed feelings
(Hone, 2011).
33 | P a g e

34. The lower light in the IWM had different functions:
‘’Light is used in two ways, to create an appropriate atmosphere with in exhibition but also to
control environmental conditions for the exhibits on display. The lighting in the Holocaust
exhibition does both these things.” (Gilbert, 2012).
Finally sight is confined by the speed of the movement. In London Tombs people have
been asked to hold to each other and walk fast while crossing the straining linear path
(author participation). While in London Dungeon visitors are often put on fast moving
rides which disorientate the person and limit him/her from observing the environment.
Sight limitation and disorientation do increase the thrilling feelings, rice blade pressure
and adrenaline which appeals to younger audience (Hone, 2011)
The Clink Prison offers the chance to see the prison building and read literature
material attached to the walls. Visualising the environment here has an important value as
the purpose of the product is to educate rather than to provoke feelings (Hone, 2011).
In conclusion to this point it could be said that vision has an important element in the
perception of the display of a dark site. The amount of visibility and light characterise not
only the physical appearance of the display, but it also transmit moods and feelings. The
presence of light can stimulate certain experiences and provoke mixed feelings. It could be
suggested that lighter dark sites use light as an additional senses stimulation tool in order
to deliver strong experiences and feelings. People perceive those in a different way from
one another. However the majority claims to feel ‘scared’ (Mears; Hone, 2011). In darker
attractions use of light effects is much more restricted than in the lighter ones.
4.4.2. Hearing and Smell
It has been noted that these two senses are also been regulated by the six dark sites visited.
Hearing plays an important element of the contemporary museum, attraction or exhibition
product offer. In the lighter attractions such as London Bridge and London Tombs as well
as parts of the Camber of Horror, audio elements are highly encouraged and stimulated.
Nevertheless recorded screaming, opening old doors, whispers and banging noises have
been recorded and played out by sound systems throughout the buildings. The volume is
high to the point to discomfort most visitors (Hone, 2011). The sound included human
34 | P a g e

35. screaming, animal noises, animal cry, banging doors and other commonly irritating noises.
Contrarily the noise in the Imperial War Museum is kept low. On the ground floor
the visitor could only hear pleasant noise coming from the coffee shop and the moderate
tone of the other visitors’ conversations and comments. Meanwhile the top floor exhibition
is absent from visitors voices, the only sound comes from recorded speeches by politicians,
and whispers of real victim testimonials. Sarah Gilbert defines the sound information as a:
“Method of interpretation. We find that our visitors are interested to hear first-hand accounts from
people who actually experienced the topic that we are presenting.” (Gilbert, 2012).
During the visit in the scary attractions it was noted a strong specific unpleasant smell. It
was almost identical in London Dungeon and London Experience. It fit the product
character quite well, as the combination of what was seen and what was heart was also
possible to smell. The heavy, smoky and pungent smell was not recommended to
asthmatic visitors (Kryonica, 2011). The thought that the smell was encouraged and
created on purpose in the attractions was turned down by Kryonica (2011). She said that
these were the 'natural' odours of the underground, substantiated by the traffic pollution
and the nearby rail way dust. The unwilling smell factor contributes to the rising emotions
in the visitor perceptions at the London Dungeon and London Bridge (Hone, 2012).
Meanwhile loud animal and human noises in combination with heavy odours were
encouraging fear and excitement in the visitor emotions (Hone, 2011), in the lighter
attractions and exhibitions, the opposite was the case of Chislehurst Caves. There was, as
well as the other senses, a complete absence of smell or sound stimulations. There was a
trace of a cold stone feel to the intangible characteristics of the place but none else, which
helped the mysterious nature of the experience (Terri, 2011). The only sound came from
the tour guide voice, which at one point also goes mute, leaving the visitor in an unusual
situation. Smell in the IWM was carefully contained in some areas of the exhibition
(Submarine Experience), and absent in areas such as the Holocaust Exhibition. Presence of
smell in the Holocaust Exhibition there was ‘inappropriate’ (Gilbert, 2012).
In the IWM the different war experiences and events were not only presented by
35 | P a g e

36. collection of visual material, but are also supported by sound records, making the product
appear authentic to the visitor. As smell could not be captures from the relevant time, the
exhibitor curators have decided that it was inappropriate to recreate odour, as it would
not match the originality of the display.
To summarise this point it could be said that sound and smell presence is important to
contemporary museums and attractions in order to communicate an attitude and feelings
to the audience. They make the product more multidimensional an interactive. In lighter
sites these are highly stimulated, meanwhile in darker sites laud noise and recreated smell
is unsuitable (IWM), due to unwilling interference with the ethical and authenticity
concepts.
4.4.3 Touch and Knowledge
Touch involves familiarisation with the environment and gaining a better perception of
the situation. Therefore being able to touch in environment with low visibility could be
beneficial to visitors. Even though the light source is sufficient to analyse a subject, more
credibility and understanding will be gained when the person feels the environment
(Hone, 2011). The dark sites explored in this paper have had different approach towards
the haptic perception. Interactivity was very much available on the ground floor in the
Imperial War Museum and on some digital screens in the 'Cold War' exhibition, and in the
Holocaust exhibition (chairs to sit on, original train carriage-possible to go through and
touch).
“Interactivity provides an alternative way for visitors to learn about a subject. With screen based
interactive it also often gives the museum an opportunity to look at a theme in more detail.
Younger audiences respond particularly well to interactive elements but they are popular with all
age groups’ (Gilbert, 2012).
Interactivity is encouraged by Clink Prison site too, allowing the visitor to learn and
understand better the display presented. Although objects which are not allowed to be
36 | P a g e

37. touched are usually covered by a glass box or there is a sign acknowledging the visitor
what would be appropriate or not to do.
While passing through the corridors of London Experience Chamber of Horror and
London Dungeon it was possible to see (even in low light), hear and smell the
surroundings, touching was a lot more limited. The background objects, sculptures and
stenographs were pieces created for the exhibition purpose and touching could damage or
misplace them (Kryonica, 2011). Additionally the feel of the non-authentic (fake) materials
and objects would decay the visitor illusion (Hone, 2012), and growing emotional storm.
Finally, due to the limited time available in London Dungeon and Tombs, visitors have
little opportunity to explore the surrounding.
Knowledge in this contest would refer to the peoples’ perceptions of the environment and
how some elements have a stronger impact on them due to their familiarity with the
circumstances of the display. For example people who had studied the Second World War
would perceive the information displayed as more darkly saturated than people who have
not (Hone, 2012). Nevertheless medieval murderers and diseases such as the plaque are
presented by dark lighter sites. Perhaps the disconnection of those deaths with the
contemporary world characterises them as ‘lighter content’. World conflicts which have
affected directly many family members of the visitors tends to be perceived as a lot more
horrifying, although it probably took less victims than the plaque (Howsen, 2012; Hone,
2011). A person who is afraid of darkness would be more terrified in the Chislehurst
Caves than in IWM, or perhaps a person is claustrophobic would feel stronger emotions in
the London Tombs. An American citizen could possibly feel stronger feelings seeing a
piece of the Twin Towers after 9/11 attack rather than a visitor who had never been in
America, and have no connection with their culture, and so on (Hone, 2011).
This point argues that the feelings experienced in a dark site vary not only according to the
type of display, visual, hearing and interactivity, but also according to the personal
perception, experiences, knowledge and personality of the visitor. Using the personal and
unique background, knowledge, principles and experiences, people would interpret the
37 | P a g e

38. display and the dark environment in a different way.
4.5 DARK CHARACTERISTICS ACCORDING TO THE SPECTRUM THEORY
The following paragraph will take all the evidence and findings from the previous
chapters and will try to analyse their approximate position on the spectrum line
developed by Stone (2006). The allocated places of the dark sites on the line will be rough
as within the dark sites discussed in this paper there are different exhibitions and displays.
As the evidence supports the theory, the darkest product offers display of original
items from a death field, with short time distance from the event, and engaging political
and recent ethical issues as seen in the Imperial War Museum. Some original objects could
be also seen in the Clink Prison. This site has also offers authenticity of the building (the
original place of the prison), however it has no political relevance and the time distance
from the events is very long.
London Dungeon, London Experience and Tombs, and Chamber of Horror have no
original display, the death related issues are long gone and there is no evidence of death
taking place in the actual buildings; therefore they are lighter sites according to the
spectrum theory. Additionally to their inauthentic display, the sites are enriched with false
artefacts and symbols (fake blade, costumes, fake animals), which makes them more
fictional and entertaining than educational and historically reliable. London Dungeon
even use rides which makes the site even less learning orientated, and more entertaining,
especially for the younger audience. These characteristics added to the show like tours and
performances place the attractions on the lightest end of the spectrum line.
Finally the Chislehurst Caves attraction is located in the original underground
tunnels. They have no evidence of actual human sacrifices (other than the stone bed), and
no real evidence of ghosts. The dark events are very distant from the present, and have no
political relevance. On the other site this was the place which saved many lives during the
blitz. It can be assumed that the site is a light attraction with some elements of ‘dark’
character.
The following table summarises the sites features subtracted from the personal visit
findings (table 2).
38 | P a g e

39. TABLE 2
DARK FEATURES CHECK- LIST TABLE
Chamber
Clink London London Chislehurst
IWM of
Prison Experience Dungeon Caves
Horror
Location
_ _
Authenticity
Originality of
_ _ _ _
the display
Political
_ _ _ _ _
Relevance
Recent event _ _ _ _ _
Educational
Entertaining _
39 | P a g e

40. Profit
_
orientated
Where ‘–‘ means more ‘No’ than yes, and ‘ ’ means more ‘Yes’ than no.
4.5.1 APPROXIMATE POSITIONING OF THE DARK SITES ON THE SPECTRUM LINE
Summarising the above findings it could be assumed that the approximate positioning of
the dark sites on the spectrum line is as displayed in fig. 3. From this could be deducted
that the sites analysed in this paper have similar aspects and close to each other proximity,
however they differentiate in terms of market communication and product content. This
research found that the sites have similar display character in the lightest and in the
darkest end. Regardless of the product content and the marketing and organisational
perspectives the darkest sites use less senses stimulation, and provocative elements. On
the other side the lightest sites have encouraged strongly these elements. The model
following combine the elements of the dark spectrum theory with the senses stimulation
characteristics of the darkest and lightest display (model 1). This model is suggested by
this research, in reference to the findings.
MODEL 1
APPROXIMATE POSITIONING ON THE DARK SPECTRUM LINE (STONE 2006)
DARKEST LIGHTEST
London
Imperial War Dungeon
Museum
London
London Chislehurst
Chislehurst
Experience
Experience Caves
Caves
Chamber
Chamber
Clink and Tombs
and Tombs
Clink of Horror
of Horror
Prison
Prison
40 | P a g e

41. 4.5.2 SENSES STIMULATION IN RELATION TO THE LEVEL OF DARKNESS
MODEL 2
(a)
High Senses Stimulation
Darkest Side Lightest Side
(c) (d)
Low senses
stimulation
( B)
41 | P a g e

42. The model developed in this research analyses whether the site is characterised under
the lighter (Stone, 2006) paradigms of the display, (fictional, remote, entertaining), and
then adds the sense features. THE SENSES STIMULATION HERE IS HIGHLY ENCOURAGED
BY THE SUPPLY SIDE (LOUD NOISES , FAKE DARK ICONIC OBJECTS , STRONG SMELLS ,
REDUCED VISION , FLASHING LIGHTS). IN THE HIGHER OF THE LINE (A), MUSEUMS ,
EXHIBITIONS AND ATTRACTIONS COULD CONTAIN ELEMENTS SUCH AS SPECIAL EFFECTS
AND EVEN RIDES AS PART OF THE DARK DISPLAY, TAKING IT TO A DIFFERENT DIMENSION
FURTHER AWAY FROM THE CONCEPT OF ‘DARK’, TOWARDS THE THEME AND
ENTERTAINMENT TYPE OF INDUSTRY .
CONTRARILY MOVING TOWARDS THE LEFT SIDE OF THE SPECTRUM LINE (C),
TOWARDS THE DARKER END, THE SITES HERE WOULD HAVE A DIFFERENT APPROACH
TOWARDS THE ‘DARK ’ ENVIRONMENT . IN THIS DIMENSION THE DARK SUPPLIERS WOULD
HAVE TO DEAL WITH ETHICALLY SENSITIVE PRODUCT . THE SUPPLIERS HERE WOULD USE
AS LITTLE SENSES STIMULATION AS POSSIBLE (B ). THEY WOULD TEND TO DISPLAY THE
FACTS AND THE EVIDENCE LIMITING THEIR INTERFERENCE WITH THE INTERPRETATION
OF THE EMOTIONS AND THE FEELINGS . THEY WOULD TEND TO LET THE VISITOR DECIDE
THE HORROR OF THE SITUATION BY USING PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE AND JUDGEMENT.
Finally model 3 developed by this dissertation suggests some of the most commonly met
physical and perception characteristics seen in darker sites and in the lightest attractions
on the other end. It proposes some commonly seen features in the lighter and darker sites.
42 | P a g e

43. 4.5.2 Dark Product Display Model
MODEL 3
43 | P a g e

44. 4.6. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
One of the main motivators to conduct this research was to understand what makes some
dark sites use heavily dark material and being perceived as funny and entertaining.
Respectively it was interesting understanding the reason why the connection between
what is known to what is seen, and what is perceived was so important for dark sites to
understand in order to fit in with the tourism market and the consumer demands.
Managing dark sites is extremely difficult task due to the sensitive and often
disturbing content of the display. Therefore understanding the type of dark product made
them freer to use element which would stimulate the dark experience visitors are looking
for, and at the same time keep distant from ethical concerns.
Analysing the six dark sites product offer, character and features helped realising
the differences between places which relate to death. Using the dark spectrum line theory
has useful to analyse the seriousness and the actual negativity of each one site. Ultimately
it was valuable in order to understand the dark sites characteristics and level of darkness.
What it did not explain however was the intangible elements of the product which can be
vital upon the perception of the dark site. From the above observations, interviews and
findings it could be argued that the display set and the stimulation of the senses are the
main factors upon which dark site manages focus their efforts on. Vision, sound, touch,
smell and knowledge are seen as perceptual ingredients which play an important role
upon the dark site product offer. They are used in different proportions in order to deliver
an exciting experience, and at the same time they should serve the organisational
purposes, and finally product type requirements.
This study suggested also that there are different dimensions of the dark product. Dark
sites managers should acknowledge the level of darkness of their actual product and in
collaboration with the dark designers follow certain unwritten models of display. Sites
with lower level of dark product saturation (lightest) can free their imagination and
stimulate senses which encourage strong feelings and emotions in order to challenge the
visitor. They use historical dark elements in combination with contemporary horror
fictional stories, horror movies, and common phobias. They have obtained the unwritten
ethical allowance to play with death and fear, by not involving resent tragedies and by not
upsetting still alive memories. They are no different from a reality horror show; based on
44 | P a g e

45. dark humour and fantasy. Although their dark and in some extent historically relevant
content; London Bridge, London Tombs and the Chamber of Horror are perceived to be
the lightest dark sites.
On the other hand, it is believed that darker sites offer the ugly truth of the human
heritage. The aim is not to provoke additional darkness through the use of sense
stimulation, but through the use of original material and evidence. Finally, those who are
driven in dark sites for meditation or life philosophical motivations would possibly visit
dark sites where the discussion and the display of life and death are open and neutral.
In relation to the customer motivations and demands dark sites have adopted a different
product, which would reach a specific target audience. Differentiation and uniqueness had
been encouraged by the competitive marketing environment of the highly tourist city of
London. For this reason London Dungeon, London Experience and Chamber of Horror all
share very similar motivators and organisational structures and missions; however they all
tend to differ, and offer a USP. They promote, update and sell their dark product using
strategic product innovations and product development elements.
Moreover, this research discussed the link between the dark site display and
organisational purpose for being. Most of the sites discussed here were aiming to make
profits and increase visitor affluence. This suggests that the dark content is used as a
trendy tourist offer, which goes beyond the dark message itself and adapts to the
commercial and selling aspects of the dark product.
The findings evidence the blurred line between the educational and entertaining character
of the dark sites. The dark museums, exhibitions and attraction have adapted to the
requirements of the demanding market and have used elements which would make the
unattractive nature of their product attractive.
Many people wonder to what extent is acceptable the commercialisation of dark product
and to where the line of tolerance stretches. Many recent dark attractions have risen in the
last decades. Several of them are perhaps too recent to be labelled as dark sites. Adding
promotional features, selling elements and interactive features to the display to make
them more appealing would be unethical and inappropriate.
45 | P a g e

46. 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 CONCLUSIONS
This research ends with three different conclusions. Firstly, several different dark sites
were analysed and measured in terms of darkness following several criteria suggested by
Stone (2006). This was to analyse the type of dark attractions referencing not only personal
experience and customer reviews on the sites, but also based on academic literature too.
Using the theory and qualitative research methods it was assumed that this theory was
relatively accurate and reliable. The dark sites revealed that they do have a level of
darkness which varies from one to another. London Dungeon, London Bridge Experience
the Chamber of Horror was seen as a group of dark attractions belonging to the ‘lighter’
side of the dark tourism supply. They shared marketing aims and organisational missions,
as well as promotional approach and own interpretation of the ‘dark concept’. The IWM
was probably the darkest from all six sites, due to the original display, the recent timescale
from the war events and the political relevance of the product. Chislehurst Caves was
suggested to be a light site with dark elements to it. This site was important to mention as
an example of an ordinary attraction including dark elements to their product content in
order to follow the market trends and satisfy the demand.
Secondly, it was suggested that dark sites have different way of interpreting, approaching
and displaying the concept of death. This often depended on their dark themes, product
content, organisational missions and purposes. In this stage was discussed the mixture of
dark attractions, exhibitions and museums in London. It was inducted that the expanding
dark tourism demand had been met by increasing dark tourism supply. The sites have
death as common feature of their product; however they approach the visitors differently,
and deal with the dark content in their own way. They all have specialised in altered
historical areas related to human misery and death. Moreover it was seen that in order to
compete effectively, they had adapted unique features and selling points, introducing
interactive elements, and provoking feelings by using sense stimulation. The ‘lightest’
highly commercialised attractions had lower educational aims, straight forward linear
paths conducted by guides and actors, which would facilitate quick visitor circulation.
46 | P a g e

47. This would allow higher visitor capacity, enhance space productivity and increase profit
generation for those attractions. Furthermore a linear path was also observed in the
darkest areas within the sites. This path design was set for different reasons: to facilitate
circulation; to minimise time spent in the darkest areas; to allow the visitor to integrate
better in the scene and time.
In addition to the physical setting the dark supplier is also concern with creating certain
perceptions and environments within the display. These were achieved by encouraging
sense stimulation effects. Using these in different saturation could play an important role
on the visitors’ emotions and experiences. This research suggested that there is a set of
rules to follow when creating and setting a dark display. In relation to the type of product
and level of saturation, dark sites would display death and the surrounding environment
accordingly. Darkest sites would interfere as little as possible with the display by adding
recreated environment simulations. They would tend to present facts as they are, rather
than aiming to encourage feelings by provoking human physical senses. Contrarily, lighter
sites aim to incite strong feelings and emotions by using different tools, which encourage
the interaction with sense stimulation and provoke people’s imagination.
The research followed qualitative techniques in order to understand the supplier’s vision
and interpretation of the dark tourism product. In many cases however, such methods
where difficult to carry out due the complexity and busy environment of the tourism
industry. Interview requests were often declined by the attraction managers. Some others
declined to provide any type of internal marketing information (London Dungeon).
Ultimately it was difficult to obtain maps from the sites due to ‘security reasons’. Because
of these and other obstacles, this fields needs to be ultimately researched and investigated
in order to fully understand the psychology behind the dark tourism supply sites.
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
The next generation public displays tend to become more interactive, engaging, emotional
and exiting. Dark heritage on display has transformed its aspect through use of
technology, sense stimulation and better understanding of peoples' motivations and
47 | P a g e

48. desires. Dark sites should not only satisfy and anticipate visitors’ wants in order to
succeed, but also should respect ethical and social norms, which restrict the intense
interpretation of the dark product. Successful sites have incorporated these tools in order
to attract more visitors, increase visitors’ satisfaction, and fulfil their commercial or
educational missions. However, dark sites should be aware of the implications of the
death related concepts. This research would recommend careful analysis of the level of
darkness, before proceeding to the design set, and use of sense stimulation,
commercialisation and communication strategies. Moreover, the sense stimulation model
could be used in order to reach balance.
The second recommendation suggests that the dark sites purpose could expand,
and propose other uses of the dark displays related to contemporary issues from the third
world. Darkness and death could be reported by setting interactive exhibitions, which
would help wealthy societies understand the difficulty of the world we live in. Simulating
the lifestyle and the environmental conditions in places such as the streets of Ethiopia or
North Korea in exhibitions, could attract dark visitors. They would visit driven by various
possible motivations. Interacting, sensing and perceiving the dark environment would
make them experience other, darker reality of the world in safe conditions. This could
benefit not only possible increase of visitors in exhibitions, but raise awareness, create
unusual experiences, and perhaps help some people appreciate their living environment.
Such exhibitions could be also set by charity organisations in order to raise money for poor
societies, or disease research.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Further research needs to be addressed in areas of the perception dimension of the dark
display environment. This study was useful to introduce the idea of relationship between
‘dark’ product content and adequate senses stimulation within a dark tourism
organisation. However, more needs to be discovered in terms of senses stimulation and
their use by organisations in order to deliver the ‘dark’ product in a tolerable manner. The
human perceptions are subjective and hard to analyse. Further research needs to be done
on senses stimulation and their effects on people’s feelings and perceptions in order to
48 | P a g e

49. create a successful, satisficing and ethically correct dark display.
LIST OF TABLES
FIGURE 1 DEATH AND CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY
FIGURE 2 DARK TOURISM SPECTRUM LINE
TABLE 1 TABLE OF DARK SITE TYPE, MISSIONS AND MARKETING
DESCRIPTION
TABLE 2 DARK FEATURES
MODEL 1 APPROXIMATE POSITIONING ON THE DARK SPECTRUM LINE
MODEL 2 EXTERNAL SENSES SATURATION
MODEL 3 DARK PRODUCT DISPLAY MODEL
49 | P a g e

50. LIST OF MARKETING PUBLICATIONS
TABLE 1
TABLE OF DARK SITE TYPE , MISSIONS AND MARKETING DESCRIPTION
Site Name Type Missions Marketing Description
Scary aims to be at the forefront of ‘’Welcome to our
attraction the industry by ensuring Dungeon, come inside
London visitors receive an accurate and we will take you on a
Experience experience of what life used tour through London’s
to be like throughout its most horrible history’’
extensive history ARE YOU BRAVE
ENOUGH?
London Scary The world’s No 2 visitor ‘’Heart stopping’’
Dungeon attraction attraction operator, Merlin
Scary SCREAM, you’ll need to
aims to deliver memorable
Madame attraction warm up your vocal
and rewarding experiences
Tussauds chords to ensure you can
to its 30 million visitors
(Chamber of scream loud enough to be
worldwide, through its
Horror) rescued. But then again,
iconic global and local
who is going to come to
brands
your aid.....?
50 | P a g e

51. Museum Aims to preserve the prison Why not explore the
Clink Prison and create profits, offering prison that gave its name
and educational and to all others?
entertaining experience The clink Prison.
Museum Our ambition is to be the Information on artefacts
world’s leading authority and history of British and
on the interpretation of Commonwealth military
Imperial War conflict and its impact, forces.
Museum particularly focusing on
Britain, its former Empire
and the Commonwealth,
from the First World War to
the present.
Attractio To entertain visitors and A labyrinth of dark
n preserve the underground mysterious passageways
Chislehurst by offering an enjoyable which have been hewn by
Caves family experience. hand from the chalk, deep
beneath Chislehurst
Source: websites and marketing publications (brochures, magazines, leaflets)
LONDON BRIDGE EXPERIENCE AND LONDON TOMBS
51 | P a g e

52. 52 | P a g e

53. CHISLEHURST CAVES
53 | P a g e

54. CLINK PRISON
54 | P a g e

55. IWM
CHAMBER OF HORROR
55 | P a g e

56. (All images are taken from different marketing publications, and websites)
56 | P a g e

57. SITE MAPS
LONDON DUNGEON
57 | P a g e