1. Jonathan R. White
www.cengage.com/cj/white
Chapter: 5
Practicing Terrorism: Gender
Roles, Tactics and Force
Multipliers
Rosemary Arway
Hodges University
2. Gender and Mission
Gender and Mission
o Ideology draws certain types of recruits to a movement,
and it influences the tactics terrorist groups employ.
▪ Gender impacts tactics and is often related to
ideology.
o Women active through the evolution of terrorism
▪ Role of women has often been overlooked
▪ Women were active in terrorism:
▪ at the time of the French Revolution,
▪ in 19th century Russia,
▪ in racial terrorism in the United States,
▪ in revolutionary terrorism in Ireland and leftist movements
after 1968.
The role of women is more closely related to political
orientation than tactics.
3. Gender and Mission
Gonzalez-Perez:
o Women are more drawn to domestic terrorist groups.
o Women in domestic groups gravitate toward combat
and leadership.
o Women in international groups are more likely to be
employed as supporters, sympathizers and spies.
Ness:
o Women relegated to support and service in religious
terrorist groups.
▪ This will change as women become more involved.
o Women developed combat and leadership positions in
secular organizations.
4. Gender and Mission
Blee:
o The role of women in racial terrorism in the
United States:
▪ In the post-Civil War era, they served as inspiration
for male violence.
▪ In the 20th century women became actively involved
in lynching.
▪ In the late twentieth century, White Supremacy
groups recruited women in support roles.
5. Gender and Mission
Overlooking Female terrorists
o Stack-O’Connor:
▪ Female terrorism is overlooked for the same reason that
female criminality has been underplayed: researchers do
not think of women as criminals, but rather, as victims.
o Ness:
▪ Popular culture does not accept the idea of female
terrorists.
o von Knop:
▪ Women used as attackers or suicide bombers are
following male model.
o Sjoberg:
▪ Studies of women in terrorism are generally ignored.
▪ Media presentations follow the same track.
6. Tactics of Terrorism and Multiplying Force
Jenkins reports six tactics of terrorism:
o Bombing
o Hijacking
o Arson
o Assault
o Kidnapping
o Hostage taking
Terrorism includes threats from weapons of mass
destruction and virtual attacks through computer
systems.
7. Tactics of Terrorism and Multiplying Force
This tactics of terrorism can be enhanced by
force multipliers.
Force multipliers
o increase striking power without increasing the
strength of a unit
Force multipliers giving terrorists more striking
power include:
o Technology
o Media coverage
o Transnational support networks
o Religious fanaticism
8. Tactics of Terrorism and Multiplying Force
Most common weapon of terrorism is the
bomb.
Anarchists in 1848 – philosophy of the bomb
o Only way to communicate with the social order was
to destroy it.
Irish Republican Army found the bomb to be
the most important weapon after 1969.
Groups throughout the world found bombs
could be delivered by suicide attackers
o Suicide bombings and road side bombs are
weapons of choice against U.S. military in Iraq.
9. Tactics of Terrorism and Multiplying Force
Terrorists increase effectiveness by applying
explosive technology to weapons.
Middle Eastern type of military-style weapon
o Thermobaric bomb
o Mini-nuke
Force multipliers enhance destructive power
while innovation is used to achieve shock and
surprise.
Purpose of a terrorist attack – send a message
of chaos and destruction to a larger audience.
o Victims are not the target; they are killed to send a
message.
10. Technology
Terrorism is influenced by technology
Cyberterrorism
o Cyberterrorists threaten to interrupt or confuse the
flow of information.
o Cyberterrorism refers to use of computers to attack
technological targets of physical attacks on computer
networks.
o Targets for cyberterrorism:
▪ Computers
▪ Computer networks
▪ Information storage and retrieval systems
o There has been a sharp rise in such attacks, with the
Internet providing the vehicle for launching most of
the strikes.
11. WMD: Biological Agents
Weapons of Mass Destruction – WMD – are biological
arsenals containing bacterial and viral weapons.
o Microbes weaponized to increase their ability to kill
o Difficult to control but relatively easy to produce
Biological agents include:
o Natural poisons or toxins
o Viruses
o Bacteria
o Plagues
Most threatening according to CDC are:
o Smallpox
o Anthrax
o Plague
o Botulism
o Tularemia
o Hemorrhagic fever
12. WMD: Biological Agents
Two biological attacks in America
o 1984 religious group in Oregon
▪ Bacteria on a salad bar
▪ Elect religious followers to local office
o Anthrax in the wake of 9-11
▪ Two tabloid writers infected thru the mail
▪ Followed by numerous anthrax attacks throughout
the United States
o The Commission on the Prevention of weapons of
Mass Destruction Proliferation and Terrorism
(2010) found that the United States still had no
structure in place to respond to a biological attack.
13. WMD: Chemical and
Radiological Weapons
Forms of chemical alterations include:
o Radiological poisoning and “dirty” radioactive
devices
Chemicals:
o Generally easier to deliver than biological weapons
o Faster acting
Radiological devices:
o Slower than most chemicals
o Longer lasting
o Can be spread like chemicals
14. WMD: Chemical and
Radiological Weapons
Four types of chemical agents:
o Nerve agents
▪ Ingestion, respiration, or contact
o Blood agents
▪ Absorbed through the respiratory system
o Choking agents
▪ Absorbed through the respiratory system
o Blistering agents
▪ Burn skin and internal tissue areas upon contact
15. WMD: Chemical and
Radiological Weapons
Chemicals are attractive to terrorists.
o Easy to control
o Users can avoid area they attack
Chemical weapons are problematic.
o Delivery mechanism
o Need for large quantities of chemicals
o Chemicals can be neutralized by weather patterns, air, and
water.
Dirty bomb
o Explosive used to spread a chemical or radioactive agent
around a large area
o Drawback of the dirty bomb
▪ The heat produced by the explosion may destroy the
chemicals attached to the bomb
16. WMD: Nuclear Weapons
Nuclear weapons
o Available on the black market from sources in the
former Soviet Union.
o It is much easier for terrorists to use a conventional
weapon or to spread chemicals than to build a
nuclear weapon.
o The U.S. Congress has designated a site in
Nevada as the repository for all the radioactive
waste used in America’s nuclear power plants, and
all this material must be shipped across the
country.
This nuclear waste is a ready-made dirty bomb
17. WMD: Nuclear Weapons
Nuclear terrorism:
o Two methods for obtaining a nuclear device:
▪ Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU)
▪ Plutonium
Levi:
o The United States is not ready for an attack.
o Problems associated with terrorist’s attempts to obtain a weapon:
Sophisticated security mechanisms
National arsenals are secured
Weapons are heavy and difficult to transport
o The United States should approach nuclear terrorism in two
manners:
debunking popular myths and focusing on a comprehensive
approach to a terrorist group and all its activities;
revamp defense systems.
18. WMD
WMD …. an international problem
o All countries should encourage their nuclear
companies to control their trade.
▪ Prohibit sales of nuclear goods to those
countries that sponsor or support terrorism.
▪ For example Uzbekistan, the biggest
exporter of nuclear materials (uranium) and
fuels (natural gas, petroleum), must regulate
their nuclear industry.
19. The Media as A Force Multiplier
Governments and terrorists benefit from
media portrayal of terrorist activity.
Everyone involved in terrorist conflict
tries to manipulate images of terrorist
activities.
o Continuous reporting amplifies the aura of
small groups
o Striking power of the group is magnified
o Wilkins: terrorists try to multiply force
through communication
20. The Media as A Force Multiplier
Nacos: Most terrorist groups have
objectives beyond publicity
o Groups want recognition
Wolfsfeld: Media victories are crucial for
terrorism
o How battles are reported as important as
battlefield combat
o Neither side wants to be portrayed as
aggressor
o Media primary tool for demonizing the enemy
Terrorist groups will attempt to portray
respectability in all forms of media.
21. The Media as A Force Multiplier
All forms of media can be used to multiply force.
o Internet is gaining attention of security forces
Online communication brings measure of freedom when
media is heavily controlled
Emerging as a major source of information
Krasnoboka: The Internet does not have an overwhelming
impact in democratic countries, but it is a powerful tool for
opposition forces in authoritarian régimes.
o Movies assist terrorism and distort issues
• Create popular images of propaganda
• Responsible for strong emotional projections
• Presents another venue for examination, for both assisting
terrorism and distorting issues
22. Economic Targeting
and Transnational Attacks
Transnational support or operations can
be used as a force multiplier.
o Striking transnational or international
economic targets increases the
effectiveness of terrorist operations.
Three types of transnational attacks:
o Tourism
o Energy
o Shipping
23. Economic Targeting
and Transnational Attacks
Tourism
o Attacks on tourism have a negative economic
consequences (ETA).
Energy
o Interest in oil and gas production
o Fossil fuels present tempting targets.
Represent power and strengths of industrialized
world.
Strikes against oil refineries or transfer facilities
have economic impact on the West.
Examples: Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan
24. Economic Targeting
and Transnational Attacks
Endemic terrorism
o Form of violence occurring in Africa where arbitrary
national boundaries have been drawn through ethnic
and tribal divisions
Niger Delta
o Oil plays crucial role
Used to fund endemic terrorism and corrupt governments
o Becomes target for those who cannot control production
Oil companies investing in the area have greater incentive
to focus on security than poverty engulfing the region.
If poverty, endemic terrorism and criminalized
policies are not addressed it will:
o Become base for emergence of new international
terrorist groups
o Provide resources for training and eluding detection
25. Economic Targeting
and Transnational Attacks
Transportation
o Provide tempting economic target as they
produce mass casualties with minimal
effort.
o Protection of transportation is very
expensive.
Major feature of homeland security
o Critics of homeland security policies argue
that ports remain unsecured due to costs of
increased protection.
Attacks on aviation, shipping and
transportation increase cost of security.
26. Suicide Attacks – Conflicting Opinions
Gambetta’s three types of suicide attacks:
o Suicide in warfare
o Suicide for a principle without killing others
o Suicide terrorism
Altruistic suicide: suicide terrorists frequently believe
they are sacrificing their lives for a greater good.
Pape:
o Attackers are so diverse, it may not be possible to find a single profile.
o Suicide terrorism should be considered as a strategic tool.
o Suicide terrorism gives a small group the power to coerce large
governments.
o Suicide terrorists tend to be more lethal than other types of attacks.
o They strike greater fear in the target audience.
o Each attack hints at future horrific violence.
o It is a strategy designed to multiply expectations of political victory.
27. Suicide Attacks – Conflicting Opinions
Theory of suicide terrorism
Pape:
o Three factors must be in place prior to a
suicide terror campaign:
Nationalistic or ethnic group must be resisting the
occupation of a foreign power.
Foreign power must represent a democratic
government whose voters will not allow
indiscriminate slaughter and total repression of the
people in occupied area.
Difference in religions of the occupying power and
the people living under occupation.
28. Suicide Attacks – Conflicting Opinions
Suicide terrorism is not caused by a
single religion; it is caused by differences
between two religions.
Pape’s evidence from case studies:
o Israeli occupation of the Shi’ite areas of Lebanon
o The Sinhalese (Buddhist) control of the Tamil
(Hindu) region of Sri Lanka
o The fighting between Sunni Kurds and Sunni Turks
in Eastern Turkey
o The Indian (Hindu) struggle with the occupied Sikhs
29. Models for Suicide Bombing
Tosini :
o Suicide bombings are based on a strategic logic; a rational
choice perspective.
o This neglects the study of the social structure and culture of
the group engaged in suicide terrorism.
Wade and Reiter:
o Suicide attacks are not used mainly against democracies.
o Muslim states suffer more suicide attacks than Western
democracies.
Gunaratna:
o All suicide bombing attacks have three things in common:
Secrecy
Reconnaissance
Rehearsal