The document provides an overview of attention and memory from an information processing perspective. It discusses key aspects of the information processing model including attentional and perceptual processing, working memory, implicit and explicit long-term memory, and factors affecting age differences in memory like encoding, retrieval, and automatic processes. It also covers topics like memory training, self-evaluations of memory abilities, and clinical issues related to distinguishing normal from abnormal memory aging.
2. The Information Processing Model
Learning Objectives
What are the primary aspects of the
information-processing model?
What are the areas where we observe differential
age changes in attention and memory?
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3. The Information Processing Model
Information-processing approach
Uses a computer metaphor to explain how
people process stimuli
The information-processing approach is based
on three assumptions:
1. People are active participants in the process.
2. Both quantitative (how much) and qualitative
(what kind) aspects of performance can be
examined.
3. Information is processed through a series of
hypothetical stages or stores.
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4. The Information Processing Model
Three fundamental questions:
1. Which areas show evidence of age differences in
the aspects of processing?
Early stages (attention)
Secondary memory
Long term memory
2. How can we explain variability when we find age
differences in information processing?
3. What are the practical implications of age-related
changes in information processing?
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5. The Information Processing Model
Attentional and Perceptual Processing
Sensory memory
Where new, incoming information is first registered
Large amounts of information very rapidly
Memory details are dependent on how much
attention is given to the stimuli.
If attention is given, then the info is passed to the
next stage of memory.
Age differences are not typically found at this stage;
however, they do begin to appear when attentional
processes are applied to sensory memory. (ability to
direct & sustain attention, and the speed at which information is
processed)
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6. Attentional Control
Learning Objectives
What is processing speed? What age differences are
found?
What are the processing resources that underlie
information processing?
What is inhibition loss? When are age differences
found?
What are attentional resources? Under what
conditions are age differences observed?
How do automatic and effortful processes differ? In
what situations are age differences present?
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7. Attentional Control
Speed of Processing
How quickly and efficiently these early steps in
information processing are completed
Slowing of processing is task-specific.
Processing Resources
The amount of attention one has to apply to a
particular situation
There have been a number of alternative ways of
examining a process resource hypothesis.
Two of those are:
Inhibitory loss
Attentional loss
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8. Attentional Control
Inhibitory loss
Theory: Older persons have task-irrelevant
thoughts that interfere with processing.
Other research shows inhibition is not universal
across all aspects of stimulation.
Certain strategies can compensate for irrelevant
information interference.
Is there a purpose for older persons attending to
irrelevant information? (increased problem solving skills)
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9. Attentional Control
Attentional Resources
Divided attention (how much info can be processed at any given time)
Older person are more penalized when they
must divide their attention and find it more
difficult to multitask.
Writing while listening
Conversing while driving
Extensive practice can minimize the poor
performance on multitasking.
Older adults use strategies to compensate for
inability to multitask. (most important tasks first)
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10. Memory Processes
Learning Objectives
What is working memory? What age differences
have been found in working memory?
How does implicit and explicit memory differ
across age?
How does episodic and semantic memory
performance differ across age?
What age differences have been found in the
autobiographical aspects of episodic memory?
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11. Memory Processes
Working Memory
The active processes and structures involved in
holding information in mind
Simultaneously using that information,
sometimes in conjunction with incoming
information to:
Solve a problem
Make a decision
Learn new information
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12. Memory Processes
Implicit versus Explicit Memory
Explicit memory (declarative)
Intentional and conscious remembering of information
that is learned at a specific point in time
An example is remembering who wrote the Gettysburg
address.
Implicit memory (procedural memory)
Retrieval of information without conscious or intentional
recollection
An example is a language task such as stem completion.
Smaller age differences that explicit memory
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13. Memory Processes
Long Term Memory
The ability to remember extensive amounts of
information from a few seconds, hours, or
decades.
Semantic Memory
Learning and remembering the meaning of words
and concepts that are not tied to specific occurrences
of events in time
Episodic Memory
Conscious recollection of information from a specific
event or point in time
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14. Memory Processes
Autobiographical Memory
Involves remembering information and events
from our own life
It is a form of episodic memory.
Flashbulb memories
Vivid memories of very personal or emotional events
Weddings
September 11, 2001
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15. Factors Affecting Age Differences in Memory
Learning Objectives
What evidence is there for age differences in encoding?
What age differences have been observed in retrieval?
What are the relative contributions of encoding and
retrieval in explaining age differences in performance?
How does a neuroscience perspective help us
understand these contributions?
How does automatic retrieval affect age differences in
memory?
What age differences have been observed in processing
misinformation as true?
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16. Factors Affecting Age Differences in Memory
Age Differences in Encoding versus Retrieval
Encoding
Elaborative rehearsal involves making connections
between incoming information and information already
known.
Use of strategies during encoding
Organize
Establish links
Older persons are not as effective in strategies as younger.
Cognitive Neuroscience Revisited
Pet scans show age differences in encoding.
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17. Factors Affecting Age Differences in Memory
The Emerging Role of Automatic Retrieval
False-fame effect
Mistaking familiarity for fame
Results indicate older persons have a deficit in retrieval.
Misinformation and memory
Source memory
The ability to remember the source of a familiar event as well as if
the event is real or imagined (took meds vs. thought about taking meds)
False Memory
When one remembers items or events that did not occur
Remembering childhood abuse that never happened
Picking a person out of a lineup that is innocent
Study: shown pics of perpetrators & innocent bystanders; week later:
had trouble picking out the perpetrator (trouble with context
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18. Memory for Discourse
Learning Objectives
What age differences are observed in text-based
levels of memory for discourse?
What age differences are observed for situation
models of discourse memory?
What social factors and characteristics of
individuals influence memory for discourse?
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19. Memory for Discourse
Text-Based Levels
Research date reveals two important points
With clearly organized text, older adults are similar to
younger in recalling more main ideas than details.
Rapid presentation of unorganized material puts older
adults at a disadvantage compare to younger.
Does it make a difference if new information
agrees or disagrees with what people already
know?
Older adults recall less if the new information
contradicts previously held beliefs.
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20. Memory for Discourse
Situation Models
Different people remember differently depending
on their situation.
Older and younger use similar updating strategies;
however, the process is more effortful for the older.
Another performance variable is prior knowledge or
experience.
Both older and younger do better on familiar material.
Memory research must consider multiple factors
other than age.
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21. Memory in Context
Learning Objectives
What age differences are there in prospective
memory?
What are some factors that help preserve
memory as we grow older?
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22. Memory in Context
Prospective Memory
Involves remembering to perform a planned
action in the future (remembering to remember)
Older patients remember to take medication better
than busy middle-aged patients.
Differences between event-related and time-related
future events.
Time based remembering is more age related.
Difficult or complex prospective tasks are not
remembered well by older adults.
Self-generated memory cues help.
Notes on a calendar, medication dispensers with
time/date cues
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23. Memory in Context
Factors That Preserve Memory
Cognitive Reserve
Factors that lessen decline by providing flexibility in
responding and adapting to changes in the environment
Exercising memory
Thinking of memory as a mental muscle
Multilingualism and Cognitive Functioning
Research suggests that older adults who speak four or
more languages had the best cognitive state independent
of education.
Semantic Memory in Service of Episodic Memory
Older adults are better at memory of related as opposed
to unrelated word pairs.
Negative Stereotypes and Memory Performance
1. Older adults do worse on memory task if they believe that
age hampers memory ability.
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24. Self-Evaluations of Memory Abilities
Learning Objectives
What are the major types of memory self-
evaluations?
What age differences have been found in
metamemory?
How do younger and older adults compare on
memory monitoring tasks? How is task experience
important?
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25. Self-Evaluations of Memory Abilities
Aspects of Memory Self-evaluations
Metamemory – knowledge about how memory works and
what we believe is true about it
Memory Monitoring – awareness of what we are doing
with our memory right now
Age Differences in Metamemory
Older adults
Seem to know less about how memory works than younger
View memory as less stable
Expect that memory will deteriorate
Perceive they have less control over memory
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26. Self-Evaluations of Memory Abilities
The Role of Memory Self-Efficacy
Memory self-efficacy – the belief that one will be
able to perform a specific task
Different than metamemory in that one may know a
good deal about how memory works, but still believe
they possess low ability to perform a specific memory
task.
Memory successes tend to bolster self-efficacy, and
failures reduce one’s belief of memory competence.
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27. Self-Evaluations of Memory Abilities
Age Differences in Memory Monitoring
Researchers ask to predict how well they will do
on a memory task.
Predictions without experience
Older adults tend to over estimate how well they will do
compared to younger.
Predictions after experience
Older adults are just as accurate as younger.
Regardless of age, adults overestimate performance on
recall tasks but underestimate performance on
recognition tasks.
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28. Memory Training
Learning Objectives
What are the major ways that memory skills are
trained? How effective are these methods?
What are the key individual difference variables in
memory training?
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29. Memory Training
Training Memory Skills
E – I – E – I – O Strategy
External aids
Notebooks or calendars
Internal aids
Mental processes, rote rehearsal, method of loci, mnemonics
Explicit (direct aids)
(intentionally remembering information that was learned at a specific time)
Implicit (indirect aids)
(retrieval of information without conscious effort)
O! or Aha! (suddenly remembering)
Memory Drugs
Only modest, short term improvement
No medical breakthroughs
Combining Strategies
What works with one may not work for all
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30. Clinical Issues and Memory Testing
Learning Objectives
What is the difference between normal and
abnormal memory aging?
What is the connection between memory and
mental health?
How is memory affected by nutrition and drugs?
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31. Clinical Issues and Memory Testing
Normal versus Abnormal Memory Aging
Distinguish by asking if changes disrupt a person’s
ability to function in everyday life
Repeatedly forgetting to turn off the stove
Forgets the way home
Alzheimer’s
Progressive destruction of memory
Wernicke-Korsakoff
Loss of recent memory and sometimes inability to form
new memory
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32. Clinical Issues and Memory Testing
Memory and Mental Health
Depression
Feelings of helplessness and hopelessness
Dementias
Declines in cognitive performance
Irreversible and untreatable
Studies found that negative effects of depression on
memory are greater in young and middle-aged than
in older adults.
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33. Clinical Issues and Memory Testing
Memory, Nutrition, and Drugs
Little is known about the effects of nutrition on
memory.
Alcohol and caffeine, if abused, will affect memory.
Sedatives and tranquilizers have been found to impair
memory.