6. in reference to plantsClones have identical genetic makeup Abundant in nature Used by scientists to generate organisms with valuable traits
7. Historical Perspective Farmers started using it thousands of years ago Revolutionized in late 20th Century with the advent of genetic engineering
8. Cloning in Animals To generate animals with desirable traits To bolster endangered species Maybe in near future, extinct animals can be resurrected
9. Industrial Perspective Production of bacteria which can clean up environmental contamination Animals which can produce commercial ingredients e.g. protein
10. Importance for Humans Promises great advances in medicine Biomedical scientists plan to create animals with human diseases, so that cures can be experimented safely
12. In Bacteria and Plants Originated in nature Most organisms reproduce asexually Unicellular organisms reproduce by fission, a cloning method Plants like strawberries clone by producing runners
13. In Animals and Mammals Some species of fish, shrimps, lizards and frogs produce by parthenogenesis- from Greek word parthenos (“virgin”) and genesis (“birth”) Clones in mammals- genetic copies of each other
21. Exposed a frog egg to ultraviolet light, which destroyed its nucleus
22. Removed the nucleus from the tadpole intestinal cell and implanted it in the enucleated egg
23.
24. Glitches of Gurdon’s Method Tadpoles cloned in Gurdon’s experiments never survived to adulthood Scientists now believe that cells used may not have been differentiated cells
25.
26.
27. Working at Cambridge University in EnglandUsed nuclear transfer with DNA from early embryonic cells Two years later, a team of researchers at the University of Wisconsin cloned a cow through a similar approach
30. Scientists were able to keep the embryonic cells alive in culture for some time before beginning the cloning procedureEnabled scientists to modify an embryonic cell’s genes in culture before cloning Genetically modified livestock can be produced
32. HOW SCIENTISTS CLONE CELLS… Blastomere separationBlastocyst divisionsomatic cell nuclear transfer
33. Up till 1950’s Initial Efforts- Letting a single cell divide in a laboratory dish by ‘mitosis’ Complex Techniques- Using animal embryos 1950’s- Using cells that haven’t been differentiated yet (totipotent)
34. HOW SCIENTISTS CLONE CELLS… BLASTOMERE SEPARATION BLASTOCYST DIVISION SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER
35. Blastomere Separation Fertilize an egg cell with a sperm cell in a laboratory dish till embryo is of about 4 cells Outer coating of embryo removed Placed in a solution to separate individual cells (Blastomeres) Each blastomere cultured separately Embryos implanted into surrogate mothers
36. HOW SCIENTISTS CLONE CELLS… BLASTOMERE SEPARATION BLASTOCYST DIVISION SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER
37. Blastocyst Division Fertilized cell allowed to divide till mass is 30-150 cells (Blastocyst) Split Blastocyte into two Each half implanted in a surrogate mother Creation of identical twins
38. HOW SCIENTISTS CLONE CELLS… BLASTOMERE SEPARATION BLASTOCYST DIVISION SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER
39. Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (Overview) Use cells of only ONE parent Somatic Cell (any body cell EXCEPT an egg or a sperm) Enucleated Egg Cell (egg with its nucleus removed) Merge both cells via fusion Only applicable on immature cells (either embryonic, or of young animals)
40. Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (Breakthrough- Birth of Dolly) In 1996, by improved somatic cell nuclear transfer method Donor cell made quiescent (less active) Transfer of genetic material from udder cell to an enucleated cell (from a second sheep) Resulting embryo was implanted into the uterus of a third sheep Now donor cells can be taken from adult animals
47. Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (Glitches) All genes are NOT in nucleus, so all genes of the clone are NOT those of the donor Since every organism is influenced by, both genes and the environment, so the clone’s life will be different from that of the parent
49. Basics At Blastocyte stage, embryonic cells can divide into ALL types of cells needed by the organism Scientists separate these cells and coax them to divide under special conditions (so that they can form any cell type) Humans maintain some stem cells in some tissue of body till death. But with aging, they lose ability to transform into different cell types (cells from bone marrow is exception)
50. Benefits Can be used to cure diseases If a patient receives stem cells cloned containing his own genetic material, then his/ her immune system would not reject them as foreign material Research going on to find cure for Parkinson’s, paralysis, damaged heart muscles, arthritis and diabetes mellitus
51.
52.
53. Mouse cells have some unknown nutrient that keeps human stem cells alive
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60. Will increase social gaps, as babies with special traits, like beauty, athleticism, or intelligence can be created
![GROUP MEMBERS HASSAN TARIQ (2008-EE-180) ,[object Object]](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7)