The intent here is to present an overview of the basics and fundamentals of design theory as related to water features. These fundamentals are: context, form/line, materials/textures, light/colour, motion/movement, sound, wind and concealed components.
2. Founded in 1967, Crystal Fountains is now a globally recognized leader in the commercial water
feature industry. With a history of product innovation, design, commercial and custom manufactur-
ing, the company has expanded from one office to offices in Canada, U.A.E, Singapore and Poland.
www.crystalfountains.com
3. Introduction
Water is both simple and complicated. The simplicity of a silent and
reflective lake or pool is undeniable. Water is also complicated.
When water moves, complex interactions and forces,
displacements, and energies control its dynamics. The two forces
that modify the horizontal surface of water are adhesion (= the
attraction of water molecules and other materials) and cohesion (=
the attraction of water molecules to one another). It follows therefore
that the key to making a successful and captivating water feature is
to control the way water moves without losing control of the water or
ruining the aesthetic with poor execution.
The intent here is to present an overview of the basics and
fundamentals of design theory as related to water features. These
fundamentals are: context, form/line, materials/textures, light/colour,
motion/movement, sound, wind and concealed components.
4. Aesthetic Factors
A designer usually incorporates water
into a space as a visual element. The
aesthetic qualities of water, however,
reach far beyond the visual aspect due
to the documented psychological effects
of water as a metaphor and as a
physical factor providing sound, and
climatic modification. The sound of
water and the coolness associated with
being near or touching water are equally
parts of our emotional response to water
in the environment.
5. Aesthetic Factors - Visual Impact
Water can function as a focal point within a space or as a means of creating
and maintaining a sense of continuity. A water display can strongly temper
the character of a space. A sense of clam and serenity is created by a quiet
stream or pool, while excitement and drama can be achieved by swiftly
moving, densely massed, or strongly vertical displays. The level of formality
will be influenced by the forms of the pools and displays, and the mood
further defined or reinforced by appropriate lighting.
6. Psychological
Aesthetic Factors - Psychological Impact
It is an essential aspect of human
behavior to be drawn toward a
riverbank, lake edge, or seashore. We
either live near water or convey it to
where we live, using canals or
pipelines. Our food supply likewise
depends upon water for growth and
sustenance.
7. Aesthetic Factors - Auditory Impact
The intensity and frequency of the
sound generated by a water display
can be used to convey a sense of
calm or excitement, and can also
mask unpleasant or distracting
ambient noise.
8. Aesthetic Factors - Sensory Impact
Airborne spray and evaporation from water displays cause a cooling effect.
Droplets and sprays from active, aerated displays are particularly effective.
The Middle East fountains perfected this design by creating small openings
in the walls that surround courts yards and gardens enclosures. Prevailing
winds would be concentrated and directed towards the fountains, which
were placed in line with the interior courtyards or buildings.
9. Context
Every water feature has elements of context that must be considered
during the design process. Contextual factors can be categorized as
either aesthetic or safety related.
10. Aesthetic Context
Consider the surrounding
architectural and landscape forms. Is
there an opportunity to incorporate
or use related design forms within
the water feature composition?
Would it be advantageous to
consider using the same or similar
materials finishes or textures for this
water feature? If lighting is to be
incorporated, consider the existing or
proposed ambient light sources. A
good water lighting scheme may end
up being overwhelmed by the
surrounding sources of ambient light.
14. Safety Context
Consider how this feature will be utilized both during the day and in the
evening hours. Are there safety issues that may restrict or may have serious
implications on the water feature design? Interactive water features, in
particular, have unique spatial (i.e. run out space), water velocity and water
treatment considerations. These restrictions may result in limitations on the
type of water effect, operational heights and dynamics designed into a
feature. Also consider if there are any splash issues related to the areas
surrounding the feature. Adjacent plantings or public walking areas may
mean that splash will not be tolerated due to liability concerns.
18. Form and Line
Water is a liquid with no apparent shape unto itself. Its form is determined
by the characteristics and qualities of its container/context. As a result, the
same volume of water can have an infinite number of characteristics
depending on the play of light, materials, textures, colour and motion. As
with all design, consider form and line as it relates to the design of any
water feature.
19. Form
• Form has a mass and volume within a space and has degrees of symmetry
and irregularity. The more striking, unusual or contrasting one form is from
its surroundings the stronger the visual attraction.
24. Line
Line gives direction and movement to the eye, expresses emotion,
expresses distance and establishes perspective. The quality of line is used
to define a space – it carries the eye along its route. This eye movement
prompts emotional and psychological responses. For example, vertical lines
can be perceived as severe/emphatic and horizontal lines can be perceived
as pleasant/satisfying.
Consider adding decorative line to supporting elements and material details
within the water feature. For example, decorative grates are a creative way
to reflect surrounding design elements and can enhance the viewer
experience.
31. Materials and Textures
Materials and their accompanying textures help
to enrich the visual quality of a water feature.
Texture comes from the size and shape of the
surface quality of material that water is running
over. Textural qualities can be identified as
roughness or smoothness / lightness or
heaviness / thinness or denseness. Smooth
textures can be considered physically
undemanding / pleasant to touch and highly
reflective and complimentary to surrounding
form. Selecting the correct water feature
materials can go a long way to conveying the
right aesthetic for a particular space.
A variety of materials can be applied to water
feature designs:
32. Glass
The transparency, translucency and reflectivity of glass make it a rather
unique material to use in the context of a water feature. These unique
characteristics can result in some spectacular outcomes and effects. As a
versatile material glass can be utilized as castings or panels, frosted or
textured, transparent or translucent, clear crystalline or coloured. Textures
can be added internally or externally. The addition of light further enhances
these effects.
33. Glass
Water is expressed differently depending on the type of glass and
lighting that is utilized. Textured glass can help to aerate and
enhance the water flow over it. Water over a smooth glass texture
can be almost undetectable depending on the lighting conditions.
Water flow over glass (as with all other materials) can be
expressed by the resultant sounds.
38. Stainless Steel
The corrosion / oxidation resistance, strength and reflective properties of
stainless steel often make it the metal of choice to use in commercial water
features. It is important, however, to select carefully the appropriate grade
for a particular application as corrosion can result under certain conditions.
Stainless steel can be used as a material to run water over as with a water
wall. As a practical element used within a fountain composition stainless
steel panels can help to hide undesirable mechanical components. It can
also be used as a decorative element as with a sculpture.
41. Stone
Natural stone has long been used in water features. There are many
colours, textures and forms of stone that can be utilized as a fountain
material. Naturalistic designs may make use of less refined forms of stone
while contemporary designs may incorporate a more refined stone finish
with high reflectivity. Modern designs may incorporate naturalistic forms
such as a dark river-washed stone to create a highly reflective water effect.
A stone’s porosity may also be a significant consideration especially when
designing water walls where a porous stone may actually allow water to
migrate along surrounding walls and to places not intended for water to be.
The lack of uniformity with stone may also be considered its greatest asset.
A variety of textures allows for a variety of water effects when water flows
over it. From the aerated effects created when using split faced stone within
cascades to the smooth and calming effects created with laminar flows over
smooth finished stones.
45. Light and Colour
Pure water is colorless and thus relies on its surroundings/context to
transfer color. Light and color have a strong influence on the resultant mood
that a water feature conveys. Colours can soothe and evoke a sense of
calmness or they can arouse and evoke a sense of thrill and drama. Two of
the primary sources of color that should be considered when designing a
water feature are that which originates from the finished material pigments
and that which is derived from lighting effects.
46. Material Colour
Various coloured materials can have different impacts on a water feature’s
overall character. Darker coloured materials tend to showcase and enhance
both active and inactive water effects. For instance, aerated water and the
associated shimmering effects stand out more when run over darker
surfaces. Inactive water, such as that of a reflecting pool, is most reflective
over darker pool finishes.
51. Lighting Effects
Lighting can have a very dramatic effect on almost any water feature.
Evening viewing, of course, is dependant upon effective lighting techniques.
This is true for both interior and exterior fountains. White, submersible,
incandescent halogen lighting is particularly effective at evoking an elegant
character. On the other hand, submersible colour-changing LED lighting can
project a very dramatic and eye-catching show. The position of light sources
also has an impact on the water’s visual character. Consider placing light
sources in front, within, behind and externally. These can all have different
effects on the water feature aesthetic.
61. Motion/Movement
Water can be classified into two general categories according to its motion:
static (still) or dynamic (moving).
62. Static Water
This can be found in pools, ponds and gently flowing channels and streams.
Static water is visually placid and expresses a balance and equilibrium with the
force of gravity. Consider the visual power of a static water display especially
when juxtaposed within a dynamic environment such as an urban core.
64. Dynamic Water
This is derived from moving, flowing or falling water techniques. Dynamic
water is energetic and emotionally stimulating. It easily captures the
attention of the eye and is often articulated as a focal point within a
designed space. Consider also that water movement can be influenced by
the steepness of the slope, prevailing material textures, the introduction of
obstructions, the pool/channel width and the pool/channel depth. Higher
rates of movement are related to increased visual and sound
characteristics.
65. Because of its fluid state, a given volume of water expands outward until it is stopped
and contained. The characteristics of water flow are a result of the container it is in.
For instance, the same volume of water can be rather placid in a wide container but
be quite turbulent when funneled through a narrower channel because of the
increased resistance. Also consider that highly textured surfaces may slow water
flow and increase turbulence.
68. Sound
A major characteristic of water is the ability to emit sound when it is in motion
or strikes a surface. Depending on the amount of movement and volume of
water involved, numerous sounds can be produced that complement and
enhance the spatial experience. Sounds can be considered as pleasant,
neutral, moving or unpleasant.
69. Sound
Attention to the audible aspects of water is very important; too little can be
irritating (i.e. a dripping faucet); too much, especially in confined spaces,
can be considered overpowering. The sounds of water are infinitely variable
and can be manipulated to produce trickles, dribbles, bubbles, gurgles,
roars, gushes and splashes.
The neutralizing characteristics of water sound can also be a significant
tool. Creating “white noise” can effectively mask out external noise pollution.
The absence or near absence of water sounds can also be perceived as a
source of emotional tranquility as with a reflecting pool or a laminar water
flow.
72. Wind
Wind can have a major impact on the character of water and water effects.
As an aesthetic element, the interplay of wind and a water surface can
create interesting variations of the same water feature.
73. Wind
Consider also the prevailing winds when designing any exterior water
feature. For instance, if a traditional water fountain pool is being located
between two buildings where a wind tunnel effect may be present,
consider limiting the maximum heights of water jets to a value less than
1:1 (i.e. the maximum height of the vertical water jet is set to less than the
distance it is from the pool wall). Wind sensors can also be used to
regulate the jet heights automatically. The splash that can result from
sweeping winds can be especially problematic in public spaces where
public safety is very critical. In desert environments, wind movement of
sand into a water feature may have certain mechanical implications.
76. Concealed Components
The success of any water feature design is not only dependent upon basic
design principals it is also hinges upon how the execution is carried out. In
other words, has the detailed design of the various mechanical and
electrical components incorporated low impact solutions? There are various
techniques that can help to minimize the impact of these:
77. Concealed Components
Suspended Pool Slabs – Mechanical and electrical components can be largely
concealed with the use of suspended paver slabs. A pedestal system and/or
stainless steel framework (allowing water to flow between each paver) typically
supports these slabs. Penetrations are made to allow water jets and lights to be
incorporated. Lights are often hung off of the slabs. All equipment can be
serviced by simply removing the suspended pavers.
78. Concealed Components
Suspended FRP Grating – Similar to the suspended pool slabs, FRP grating
is an open grid of fiber-reinforced plastic from which lights can be hung and
water jets can penetrate through. A river washed stone is usually applied
over the grating to conceal all of the components below. Maintenance and
wash down is easily performed with this system.
79. Concealed Components
Decorative Diffusion Plates – A fountain pool that is clad with a stone can
also have the diffusion/inlet plate constructed of the same material. This
allows for the pool bottom to be virtually uninterrupted.
Decorative Drain Plates – A level deck drain plate can be fabricated to have
decorative grille designs.
Submerged Water Jets / Choreoswitches – Incorporating water jets that can
be submerged minimizes the impact of hardware during non-active periods.
Niche / Recessed Light Fixtures – Whenever possible, ensure that light
fixtures are concealed as with a recessed fixture or behind some sort of
shroud.