1. Logical Reasoning: Cause
and Effect
Summer,
2012
Miki Loschky

2. Understanding Complex
Relationships in Logic
• Content Objective: Interpret
cause and effect statements
• Language Objective: During
reading academic text, identify
cause and effect patterns, while
also paying attention to signal
words
CIMA © 2008

3. Different Ways in Which Cause-
Effect Relationships Can Be Stated
Cause  Effect
Ex. I was caught in traffic (action); therefore,
I missed my first class (result).
Effect  Cause
Ex. I missed my first class (result) because I
was caught in traffic (action)

4. Signal Words (Yaworski Chapter 9)
Words that Signal Words That Signal
Causes Effects
Cause Therefore
Reason Thus
Since … Resulting in …
Many factors .. .is the result of …
Due to … So
If…, then … Consequently
Because (of) … Effect
This prompted … Then
Affect

5. Identifying Cause and Effect
Statements
• Underline the signal words that are related to
cause and effect relationships in the following
paragraph:
Cosmic radiation is reduced at seal level
because of the protective blanket of the
atmosphere. Thus, at higher altitudes cosmic
radiation is more intense. For instance in
Denver, the “mile-high city,” a person receives
more than twice as much cosmic radiation as at
sea level.

6. Cosmic radiation paragraph
continued
A couple of round-trip flights between New
York and San Francisco cause us to be
exposed to as much radiation as we receive
in a chest X ray. The air time of airline
personnel is limited because of this extra
radiation.

7. Answer
• Cosmic radiation is reduced at seal level
because of the protective blanket of the
atmosphere. Thus, at higher altitudes cosmic
radiation is more intense. For instance in
Denver, the “mile-high city,” a person receives
more than twice as much cosmic radiation as at
sea level. A couple of round-trip flights between
New York and San Francisco cause us to be
exposed to as much radiation as we receive in a
chest X ray. The air time of airline personnel is
limited because of this extra radiation.

8. Exercise 1
• Identify the cause-effect relationships for the
following sentence:
• 1) Anita missed breakfast, which made her
hungry, so she stopped at the coffee shop for a
donut.
A caused B: Anita missed breakfast (cause), and
________________ (effect)
B caused C: _________________ (cause), and
she stopped at the coffee shop for a donut
(effect).

9. Exercise 1 Answer Keys
A caused B: Anita missed breakfast (cause),
and she felt hungry (effect)
B caused C: Anita felt hungry (cause), and
she stopped at the coffee shop for a donut.
Chain of Reasoning:
Cause  Effect
(Cause)  Effect

10. Exercise 2 (Cambridge Preparation for
the TOEFL Test)
Complete the following sentence by
choosing the phrase/clause that would likely
follow the underlined word.
According to dental researchers, a vaccine
that could significantly reduce the number of
microorganisms thought to cause cavities
will soon be ready for human trials.
Consequently, _____________________

11. Exercise 2 Answer Choices
• A) cavity prevention program may soon be
eliminated.
• B) immunization of test animals will no longer be
necessary
• C) children will be able to consume more sugary
foods and drinks.
• D) long-term protection against tooth decay
could soon be available on the market.

12. Exercise 2 Answer Key
According to dental researchers, a vaccine that could
significantly reduce the number of microorganisms
thought to cause cavities will soon be ready for
human trials. Consequently, D) long-term protection
against tooth decay could soon be available on the
market
Vaccine (Cause)  Reducing microorganism
(Effect)
Microorganism (Cause)  tooth decay (Effect)

13. Exercise 3: The Invasion of Alien
Species
In many parts of the world, alien species are
harming the environment and causing other problems. An
alien species is a species of plant or animal that has moved
from its original home to a new area. Sometimes people
have purposely introduced the new species; sometimes it
arrives accidentally, as a side effect of international trade.
In its new location, the alien species has no natural
enemies, so it can grow and multiply without limit. Over
time-sometimes decades, sometimes a few years-the new
species takes living space and food away from the native
plants and animals. The result can mean drastic change in
the natural landscape and problems for people.

14. Partially Completed Discourse Graphic
Organizers to Increase Text Comprehension
(Adapted from Grabes & Jiang, 2010)
Cause 1: New Effect 1: ______
species are _____________
introduced _
purposely or
accidentally _____________
_____________
Cause 2: Effect 2:
_____________ therefore _____________
_ _____________
_____________ _____________
_ Effect 3:
_____________
_

15. Completed Discourse Graphic
Organizers
Effect 1: Grow
and multiply
without limit
Cause 1: New
species are Effect 2: Take
introduced living space and
purposely or food away from
accidentally the native plants
Cause 2: The
“therefore” and animals.
alien species Effect 3:
has no natural Change in
enemies in its landscape and
new location. problems.

16. References
• Gear, J. & Gear, R. (2012). Cambridge
preparation for the TOEFL test
• Grabe, G., & Jiang, X. (2010). Reading
comprehension of text structure.
• Yaworski, J. (2006). Getting ahead:
Fundamentals of college reading.