Memory is the ability to store and retrieve information over time. It involves three main stages - sensory memory, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory. Information is encoded, stored, and retrieved through these memory systems. While memory was once thought to be permanent, research shows that forgetting can occur due to failures at each stage of memory as well as interference and motivated forgetting.
12. Rehearsal Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition. Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables : TUV YOF GEK XOZ Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de
13. Rehearsal The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day 2.
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18. Encoding Meaning Q: Did the word begin with a capital letter? Structural Encoding Q: Did the word rhyme with the word “ weight”? Q: Would the word fit in the sentence? He met a __________ in the street. Phonemic Encoding Semantic Encoding “ Whale” Craik and Lockhart (1972) Intermediate Deep Shallow
22. Method of Loci List of Items Charcoal Pens Bed Sheets Hammer . . . Rug Imagined Locations Backyard Study Bedroom Garage . . . Living Room
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26. Chunking Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it. HOMES = H uron, O ntario, M ichigan, E rie, S uperior PEMDAS = P arentheses, E xponent, M ultiply, D ivide, A dd, S ubtract ROY G. BIV = R ed, O range, Y ellow, G reen, B lue, I ndigo, V iolet
27. Hierarchy Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories.
29. Storage: Retaining Information Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below: Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding Retrieval Encoding Events Retrieval
31. Whole Report The exposure time for the stimulus is so small that items cannot be rehearsed. R G T F M Q L Z S 50 ms (1/20 second) “ Recall” R T M Z (44% recall) Sperling (1960)
32. Partial Report Low Tone Medium Tone High Tone “ Recall” J R S (100% recall) Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was originally thought. 50 ms (1/20 second) S X T J R S P K Y
33. Time Delay “ Recall” N _ _ (33% recall) Time Delay 50 ms (1/20 second) A D I N L V O G H Low Tone Medium Tone High Tone
34. Sensory Memory The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss. 20 40 60 80 Percent Recognized 0.15 0.30 0.50 1.00 Time (Seconds)
35. Sensory Memories The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses. Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long Hepatic < 1 sec. long
36. Working Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding Retrieval Encoding Events Retrieval
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38. Capacity You should be able to recall 7±2 letters. The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information (1956). George Miller M U T G I K T L R S Y P Ready?
45. Memory Stores Feature Sensory Memory Working Memory LTM Encoding Copy Phonemic Semantic Capacity Unlimited 7±2 Chunks Very Large Duration 0.25 sec. 20 sec. Years
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51. Hippocampus Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories. Weidenfield & Nicolson archives
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54. Cerebellum Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories.
55. Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store. Spanky’s Yearbook Archive Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
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58. Measures of Memory In relearning , the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time. List Jet Dagger Tree Kite … Silk Frog Ring It took 10 trials to learn this list List Jet Dagger Tree Kite … Silk Frog Ring It took 5 trials to learn the list 1 day later Saving Original Trials Relearning Trials Relearning Trials 10 5 10 50% X 100 X 100
59. Retrieval Cues Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. Fire Truck truck red fire heat smoke smell water hose
60. Priming To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming .
61. Context Effects Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land (Godden & Baddeley, 1975). Fred McConnaughey/ Photo Researchers
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65. Forgetting An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.
78. Memory Construction A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B ( smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A ( hit ) .
79. Source Amnesia Source Amnesia: Attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined (misattribution).
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Notas do Editor
An event is such a little piece of time and space, leaving only a mindglow behind like the tail of a shooting star. Far a lack of a better word, we call that scintillation memory. Diane Ackerman, An Alchemy of Mind, 2004
OBJECTIVE 1 | Define memory, and explain how flashbulb memories differ from other memories.
OBJECTIVE 2 | Describe Atkinson-Schiffrin’s classic three-stage model of memory and explain how contemporary model of working memory differs.
OBJECTIVE 3 | Describe the types of information we encode automatically.
OBJECTIVE 4 | Contrast effortful processing with automatic processing, and discuss the next-in-line effect, the spacing effect and the serial position effect.
OBJECTIVE 5 | Compare the benefits of visual, acoustic, and semantic encoding in remembering verbal information, and describe a memory-enhancing strategy related to the self-referent effect.
OBJECTIVE 6 | Explain how encoding imagery aids effortful processing, and describes some memory-enhancing strategies that use visual encoding.
OBJECTIVE 7 | Discuss the use of chunking and hierarchies in effortful processing.
OBJECTIVE 8 | Contrast two types of sensory memory.
OBJECTIVE 9 | Describe the duration and working capacity of short-term memory.
OBJECTIVE 10 | Describe the capacity and duration of long-term memory.
OBJECTIVE 11 | Discuss the synaptic changes that accompany memory formation and storage.
OBJECTIVE 12 | Discuss some ways stress hormones can affect memory.
OBJECTIVE 13 | Distinguish between implicit and explicit memory, and identify the main brain structure associated with each.
OBJECTIVE 14 | Contrast the recall, recognition, and relearning measures of memory.
OBJECTIVE 15 | Explain how retrieval cues help us access stored memories, and describe the process of priming.
OBJECTIVE 16 | Cite some ways that context can affect retrieval.
OBJECTIVE 17 | Describe the effects of internal states on retrieval.
OBJECTIVE 18 | Explain why we should value our ability to forget, and distinguish three general ways our memory fails us.
OBJECTIVE 19 | Discuss the role of encoding failure in forgetting.
OBJECTIVE 20 | Discuss the concept of storage decay, and describe Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve.
OBJECTIVE 21 | Contrast proactive and retroactive interference, and explain how they can cause retrieval failure.
OBJECTIVE 22 | Summarize Freud's concept of repression, and state whether this view is reflected in current memory research.
OBJECTIVE 23 | Explain how misinformation and imagination can distort our memory of an event.
OBJECTIVE 24 | Describe source amnesia’s contributions to false memories.
OBJECTIVE 25 | List some differences and similarities between true and false memories.
OBJECTIVE 26 | Give arguments supporting and rejecting the position that very young children's reports are reliable.
OBJECTIVE 27 | Discuss the controversy over reports of repressed and recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse.
OBJECTIVE 28 | Explain how an understanding of memory can contribute to effective study techniques.