Here are the key stages of Kohlberg's theory of moral development in 3 sentences: Kohlberg's theory proposes that moral reasoning develops through 6 stages, with 3 levels of moral reasoning - preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. In the preconventional level, reasoning is based on obedience to rules to avoid punishment. The conventional level focuses on maintaining social order and pleasing others. The postconventional level reasons from universal ethical principles of justice and human rights.

1. E X A M R E V I S I O N 2 0 1 2
VCE Psychology
Unit One

2. Chapter 1: Nature of Psychology
 The roots of psychology lie in
philosophy.
 Can be traced back to Ancient
Greek philosophers such as
Socrates, Plato & Aristotle.
 Wilhelm Wundt established
the first laboratory for
investigating psychological
phenomena in 1879.

3. Chapter 1: Nature of Psychology
 Freud developed
Psychoanalysis as
treatment for mental
disorders.
 Modern Psychology is
based on empiricism-
gathering data using
methodical research.

4. Chapter 1: Nature of Psychology
 The major perspectives are:
 Biological
 Behavioural
 Cognitive
 Socio-Cultural
 (Big Ben Chimes Slowly) or
(Big Ben Cats Stroke)

5. Psychologist vs Psychiatrist
 Psychologists are not able
to perform medical
procedures or prescribe
medication as they are not
qualified doctors like
psychiatrists.

6. Some Types of Psychologists
 Sport Psychologist
 Forensic Psychologist
 Organisational Psychologist
 Educational & Developmental
Psychologist
 Counselling Psychologist
• Clinical Psychologist

7. Chapter 2: Research Methods
 Population refers to the group of
people of interest to the
researcher. It is the group about
which the researcher wishes to
draw conclusions.
 Sample-the members of the
population who have been
chosen to take part ion the
research (A subset of the
population)

8. Some Guys Prefer IndiViduals That Rock
 Sample-eg Two large groups of identical members of the sample kept in
the same environmental conditions . State a specific number (of reasonable
magnitude) in each group, instead of simply describing a ‘large’ group or
replication of the experiment.
Group_ Divide the sample into two groups of equal size-One is the
experimental Group and One is the Control Group.I
 Pretest-infection of both groups with the virus against which the drug has
been designed.
 Independent Variable-One of the groups then needed to receive no
further treatment (the control group), the other group (the trial group)
receives the drug under investigation
 Timeafter a few days, each of the groups needs to Examined -the
number of mice that have developed the viral disease in each group counted.
 Results-If the number of mice in the trial group is significantly less than
the number in the control group, the drug has been effective.
S Sample
G Allocate to 2 Groups (Experimental group and
Control Group)
P Pretreatment
IV State the Independe4nt Variable
T Time
R Results

9. Sampling
 Convenience Sample-readily
available without any attempt
to make the sample
representative of the
population
 Random Sample-every
member of population has an
equal chance of being
selected

10. Stratified Sampling
 Random-Stratified Sample-
involves identifying all of
the people within each
stratum of research
interest, then randomly
selecting samples of
proportionate size from
each stratum

11. Descriptive Research
 Case Study-an intensive in
depth investigation of some
behaviour or event of interest
in an individual, small group
or situation.
 Observational Study-involves
collection of data by carefully
watching and recording
behaviour as it occurs.

12. Presentation of Results
If you use a graph to show your
results, you would normally graph the
independent variable (the one you
changed) on the x-axis, and the dependent
variable (what you measured) on the y-
axis.
When the dependent variable changes
with time, you can graph time on the x-
axis and the dependent variable on they-
axis.

13. Continuous Data
 Data that can take on
an infinite number of
values between whole
numbers.
 Examples:
height, temperature
and time
 This data is presented
on a line graph
Growth of Plant
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1 2 3 4 5
Time (days)
Height(cm)
Control
X
Y
Z

14. Discontinuous Data (Discrete Data)
 Data in which the
variable can only take
one of a finite set of
values
 Columns should not
touch if data is
discrete
Height of Plant
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
control X Y Z
Fertilizer
Height(cm)

15. Qualitative Data
 Deals with descriptions.
 Data can be observed but not
measured.
 Colors, textures, smells, tastes, a
ppearance, beauty, etc.
 Qualitative → Quality

16. Quantitative Data
 Deals with numbers.
 Data which can be
measured.
 Length, height, weight, spe
ed, time, temperature, ag
es, etc.
 Quantitative → Quantity

17. Ethics
 Voluntary Participation
 Informed Consent
 Deception
 Confidentiality
 Debreifing
 Withdrawal Rights
 Very
 Intelligent
 Dudes
 Can
 Do
 Well

18. Chapter 3: The Visual Perception System
 Consists of a complete
network of physiological
structures involved in vision.
 Includes eyes, sensory
receptors (retina), neural
pathways and the visual
cortex.

19. Chapter 3: The Visual Perception System
 1. Visual sensation:
 Detection or awareness of the presence of
light energy produced by stimulation of the
photo receptors on the retina.
 It is a physiological process.
 It is the same for everyone without
damage.
.

20. Perception
 2. Visual perception:
 Selection, organisation and
interpretation of visual
sensations by the brain into
meaningful info.
 This is influenced by
physiological and psychological
factors, therefore is a unique
experience for everyone

21. Response to Light
 The human eye is sensitive to a very
narrow band of electromagnetic
spectrum, this is called the visible
light spectrum.
 This spectrum starts at short
wavelengths of 380nanometres (1
billionth of a metre), which are
violet/blue and ends at larger
wavelengths of 760nm, which are
orange/red in colour.

22. Anatomy of the Eye
 Ciliary muscle: to control the shape of the
lens
 Iris: to control the amount of light entering
the lens
 Pupil: to allow light through
 Lens: to converge light to form a sharp
image on the retina
 Cornea: to bend light towards the lens
 Retina: to act as a screen for the image
 Optic nerve: to carry signals from the
retina to the brain

23. Process of Sensation & Perception
 Reception:
 The process of detecting the presence of, or
changes in, light energy in the retina.
 Transduction:
 The process by which photoreceptors change
electromagnetic energy into electrochemical
energy.
 Transmission:
 The process of sending and receiving information
in the form of electrochemical energy along a
nerve pathway to the brain.

24.  Selection – The detection and coding of
features of a stimulus, such as size, colour and
movement.
 Organisation – The grouping of elements to
be viewed in a meaningful way.
 Interpretation – The process by which the
whole is given meaning. This is done by
comparing new info. with info. already stored
in memory.

25. Perceptual Principles
 Gestalt Principles:
 German word meaning shape
and form.
 ‘The whole is greater than the
sum of its parts.’
 In psychology this is considered
the way we perceive stimuli by
grouping parts into a
whole, complete form. This is an
automatic process.

26. Closure
 The tendency to mentally
fill or ignore gaps in visual
stimuli and perceive the
object to be a meaningful
whole.

27. Figure Ground
 The tendency to perceive points of
the visual stimulus as being more
relevant (the figure) and standing
out against a less relevant
background (ground.)
 The contour line (or edges) of a
shape helps us to define the object
to make it the centre of our focus, it
becomes the figure while all other
visual info. becomes the ground

28. Depth Cues
 Source of information from
the environment or within
our bodies which helps us to
perceive an object’s distance.
 Our retina receives info. as 2D
images, but using depth cues
it’s converted into 3D reality.

29. Categories of Depth Cues
 Monocular – requiring one eye only:
 Secondary (info. from external
sources) = Pictorial depth cues
 Primary (info. from internal sources =
Accommodation
 Binocular – requiring use of both
eyes:
 Primary (info. from internal sources) =
Convergence + Retinal Disparity

30. Visual Illusions
 The consistent
misinterpretation/distortion
of real sensory stimuli.
 Most illusions occur because
they create a perception that
is inconsistent with the retinal
image.

31. Muller-Lyer Illusion
 2 parallel lines of equal
length are placed side to
side.
 The line with the outward
facing arrows is perceived
to be longer.

32. Explanation
 Misapplication of size constancy
 The line with inward facing arrows looks like the
closer outside corner of a building & the
feathertail line looks like the further corner of a
room.
 If 2 lines cast the same retinal image, but one is
further away then the further one must be
longer.
 Therefore because the feathertail line is
perceived as further away our brain interprets it
as longer & we perceive it as such.
 We are said to perceptually expand the more
distant line.

33. Perceptual Set-Why we Interpret the Way We Do
 Perceptual set expectancy:
 A predisposition or readiness to
perceive stimuli in accordance with
certain expectations.
 This may cause us to select certain
aspects of the stimulus or ignore
other aspects.

34. Factors Affecting Perceptual Set
 Motivation:
 Processes that direct & sustain our behaviour
towards achieving a particular goal.
 May be influenced by psychological (desires) or
physiological (hunger) factors.
 Cultural Factors:
 The culture in which we are raised influences our
ideas, knowledge, beliefs & attitudes.
 Emotional State:
 Different emotions can cause us to perceive
certain stimuli in certain ways.

35. Chapter 4: Lifespan Development
 Age related changes that
occur from
birth, throughout a
person’s life, into and
during old age.

36. Maturation
 The orderly and sequential
developmental changes
which occur in the nervous
system and other bodily
structures controlled by
our genes.

37. Nature vs Nurture
 The nature versus nurture
debate concerns the relative
importance of an individual's
innate qualities ("nature," i.e.
nativism, or innatism) versus
personal experiences ("nurture,"
i.e. empiricism or behaviorism)
in determining or causing
individual differences in physical
and behavioral traits.

38. Research Methods for Developmental Studies
 Cross sectional-selects &
compares groups of
participants of different ages
over a short period of time
 Longitudinal- a long term
investigation that follows the
same group of people over an
extended period of time.

39. Research Methods for Developmental Studies
 Cohort-Sequential-
combines the cross-
sectional & Longitudinal.
 Eg 3 cohorts of adolescents
aged 14, 16 & 18 every 2
years over a 4 year period.

40. Chapter 5: Theories of Psychological
Development
 Perceptual – Gibson
 Emotional –
Bowlby, Ainsworth, Harlow
 Cognitive - Piaget
 Moral -Kohlberg
 Psychosocial – Erikson
Psychological
Development
Perceptual
Gibson
Emotional
Bowlby, Ai
nsworth &
Harlow
Cognitive
Piaget
Moral
Kohlberg
Psychosocial
Erikson

41. Gibson & Visual Cliff
 The apparatus used by
Gibson was “the visual
cliff”
 Infants who had crawling
experience were fearful of
the apparent drop and
refused to cross over to
their mothers.

42. Gibson’s theory
 Emphasised key processes involved in
perceptual development. These
include:
 Role of the infant as an active explorer
 The affordance (perceived qualities)
of objects or events that are
experienced
 The way perceptual exploration
becomes more and more specific and
differentiated (selective) with age

43. Perceptual development cont.
 Exploration and the search for
affordances are important
features of perceptual
development
 Affordances are the perceived
and actual properties of
something in the
environment that suggest
how it should be used.

44. Definition of Attachment
An enduring emotional tie
to a special
person, characterized by a
tendency to seek and
maintain
closeness, especially during
times of stress.

45. Bowlby’s 4 Key Characteristics of Attachment
 Proximity Maintenance-
desire to be near the caregiver.
 Safe Haven-
the ability to be able to return to
the caregiver when scared.
 Secure Base-
from which infant can explore
surrounding environment.
 Separation distress-
anxiety when caregiver leaves

46. Ainsworth
• Mary Ainsworth researched
• Designed the “strange situation”
• A lab experiment with 8
different episodes of separation
and reunion
• Attached infant will:
• Use mother as a secure base
• Be soothed by the mother
during the reunion

47. Harlow discovered that baby monkeys deprived
of their mothers (left) would transfer their affections
to a cloth surrogate. When they needed to eat, they would scamper
over to a milk-bearing wire mother, but then quickly return to cuddle
with the softer surrogate.

48. Key principles of Piaget’s theory
• Information is organised into
schemas (groups of inter-related
ideas)
• Based on principles of
– assimilation (process of taking in
new information and fitting it into
and making it part of an existing
mental idea about objects or the
world)
– accommodation (refers to
changing an existing mental idea in
order to fit new information)
Sucking on her rattle
(assimilation), she will
eventually develop an
understanding that
rattles only make noise
(accommodation)

49. 1.Object permanence
• Object permanence is the understanding that objects
still exist even if they cannot be see or touched.
Eg. When a toy is hidden an infant believes that it does not exist anymore

50.  Children are only capable of
seeing the world from their
point of view and therefore have
trouble in seeing things from
another person’s point of view
Eg. When told to hide they cover their eyes, because they
cant see themselves they think others cant see them
either
2.Egocentrism

51.  Understanding that something can change from one
stat to another
Eg. The child cannot explain the melting process despite being able to
identify the ice-blocks (solid) and the melted ice blocks (liquid)
2.Transformation

52. 2.Animism
 Animism is the belief that everything that exists has
some kind of consciousness or awareness.
 Eg: the toy that can feel tired or sad.

53. 2.Reversibility
• Is the ability to follow a
line of reasoning back to
its original starting point
Eg. a child might be able to recognize that his
or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a
dog, and that a dog is an animal.

54.  Refers to the idea that an object does not change its
weight, mass, volume or area when the object
changes its shape or appearance
3.Conservation

55. 3.Classification
 Classification is the ability to organise information
into categories based on common features.
 Eg: a banana can belong to a group of yellow objects as
well as belong to the group of fruit.

56. 4.Abstract thinking
 Abstract thinking refers to thinking without needing
to see or visualise things in order to understand
concepts.
 Eg: understanding concepts such as
justice, honesty, respect

57. 4.Logical thinking
 Logical thinking refers to the ability to think in a
systematic way and develop a plan to solve problems.
 Eg: doing algebra

58. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
♂ Level 1: Preconventional (0-9 years)
♂ Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
♂ Stage 2: Naively egotistical Orientation
♂ Level 2: Conventional (10-15 years)
♂ Stage 3: Good Boy/ Nice Girl Orientation
♂ Stage 4: Law & Social Order Maintaining Orientation
♂ Level 3: Postconventional (16+years)
♂ Stage 5: Legalistic-Social Contract Orientation
♂ Stage 6: Universal Ethical Orientation

59. Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
 American male bias
 What people say is not always
consistent with what they do
 Method of data collection-
young children who may not
understand the stories or
express their thinking.
 Cultural differences not
addressed

60. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
 Psychosocial development theory is based
on eight stages of development
 Erikson’s theory is based on the idea that
development through life is a series of
stages which are each defined by a crisis or
challenge
 The early stages provide the foundations
for later stages so Erikson says that if a
child does not resolve a crisis in a
particular stage, they will have problems in
later stages
Erik Erikson
(1902-1994)
Danish
Psychoanalyst

62. Baltes’ Selection, Optimisation and
Compensation Theory
 Successful Ageing: Promoting
gains and managing losses.
 Optimisation: making the
most of the
abilities, resources and
opportunities available to
achieve the optimal or best
outcome.
 Compensation: new coping
strategies

63. Chapter 6: Mental Illness across Lifespan
 ADHD is a disorder
characterised by
inattention, and
hyperactive and impulsive
behaviour that is more
frequent and server than in
other children of the same
age. Usually symptoms of
ADHD become apparent in
children before they reach
7 years of age.

64. Schizophrenia
 Schizophrenia is a
psychotic illness
characterised by distorted
perceptions
(hallucinations), bizarre
thoughts, disorganised
speech, disturbed
emotions and a
deterioration in coping
with everyday life.

65.  Dementia is the progressive deterioration
of the functioning of neurons in the brain,
resulting in memory impairment, a decline
in intellectual ability, poor judgement and,
sometimes, personality changes. There are
many different types of dementia – the
most common is Alzheimer's disease.
 Dementia can affect different people in
different ways, some become bewildered
and frightened by the changes and others
seem unconcerned and unaware of their
deteriorating abilities.
Dementia

66. Activity: Jelly Bean Command Terms
 Name
 State
 Describe
 Distinguish
 Explain
 Summarise (in one
sentence)