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Bee & Boyd, Lifespan Development, Chapter 8
- 1. Chapter 8: Social and Personality Development in Early Childhood
- 3. Theories of Social and Personality Development Psychoanalytic Perspectives Freud: gain control over bodily functions and renegotiate parent relationships Anal Stage Phallic Stage
- 4. Theories of Social and Personality Development Psychoanalytic Perspectives Erikson: agreed with Freud with added focus on social skill development Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt Initiative versus Guilt
- 5. Theories of Social and Personality Development Social-Cognitive Perspectives Person perception: increasing ability to classify others Use category trait labels. Describe others’ behavior patterns of others. Categorize based on observation characteristics.
- 6. Theories of Social and Personality Development Social-Cognitive Perspectives Understanding Rule Categories Social conventions Moral rules Differentiation of response Increased cognitive capabilities and adult emphasis
- 7. Theories of Social and Personality Development Social-Cognitive Perspectives Understanding Others’ Intentions Children do understand intentions to some degree: Punishment is for intentional acts. Actors’ intentions matter. Choices bound by consequences.
- 8. Theories of Social and Personality Development Social-Cognitive Perspectives Racism in Preschool Classroom Early judgments reflect ego thinking and cognitive immaturity, not true racism. Judgment of others related to race schemas. Understanding of cultural racial stereotypes and prejudices slowly acquired.
- 9. True or false? Children know more about intentions than Piaget theorized but still have limited ability to base their judgments entirely on intentions.
- 10. Figure 8.1 A Test of Children’s Understanding of Intentionality FIGURE TO COME
- 11. Personality and Self-Concept A Brief Overview Gains in social environment understanding contribute to emergence of distinctive personality. Self-concept becomes more complex. Exercise of greater control over behavior is aided.
- 12. Personality and Self-Concept Transition from Temperament to Personality Personality represents combination of temperament at birth and knowledge about temperament-related behavior during childhood. Social rewards encourage impulse control and behavior is modified.
- 13. Personality and Self-Concept Me, myself, and more Components of Self-Concept
- 14. Gender Development Explanations and Theory: Psychoanalytic Explanations Social-Cognitive Explanations Gender Schema Theory
- 15. Gender Development Gender Concept Sequence Gender understanding develops in stages: Gender identity Gender stability Gender constancy
- 16. What is this five-year-old conveying about her understanding of gender? “This is how I will look when I grow up.” Figure 8.2 Gender Stereotyping in a Child’s Drawing
- 17. Gender Development Information-Processing Approach Gender schema theory: development of gender schema underlies gender development and occurs with recognition of gender differences Schema organization First primitive gender schema and assimilation
- 18. Gender Development Sex-Role Knowledge What are the stereotypes?
- 19. Gender Development Sex-Typed Behavior Sex-type behavior: Develops earlier than ideas about gender Learned from older same-sex children Learned differently by gender
- 20. Figure 8.3 Gender and Playmate Preferences How would you structure preschooler play opportunities?
- 21. Family Relationships and Structure Attachment Securely attached preschoolers exhibit fewer behavior problems. Insecurely attached children display more anger and aggression at daycare and preschool. By age 4, children form goal-corrected partnerships.
- 22. Family Relationships and Structure Parenting Styles: Diana Baumrind
- 23. Figure 8.4 Control, Acceptance, Parenting Style
- 24. Family Relationships and Structure Parenting Styles: Authoritarian Parenting Characteristics High levels of demand and control Low levels of warmth and communication Child Consequences Good school performance Lower self-esteem and less peer interaction skills Some subdued; others highly aggressive
- 25. Family Relationships and Structure Parenting Styles: Permissive Parenting Characteristics High in warmth and communication Low in demand and control Child Consequences Poor adolescent school performance More aggressive and immature Less responsible and independent
- 26. Family Relationships and Structure Parenting Styles: Authoritative Parenting Characteristics High in warmth and communication High in demand and control Child Consequences Higher self-esteem, independence, and altruism More parental compliance Self-confident and achievement-oriented Better school performance
- 27. Family Relationships and Structure Parenting Styles: Uninvolved Parenting Characteristics Low in levels of demand and control Low in levels of warmth and communication Child Consequences Disturbances in social relationships More impulsive and antisocial in adolescence Less competent with peers Much less achievement-oriented in school
- 28. Figure 8.5 Parenting Style and Grades
- 29. Family Relationships and Structure Effects of Parenting Styles: Overview Authoritative Parents More likely to be involved in child’s school Often use inductive discipline Not equally effective for all children
- 30. Family Relationships and Structure Effects of Parenting Styles: Spanking Most parents believe spanking effective if used sparingly Short-term effects Long-term effects Premack’s principle
- 31. Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status and Parenting Styles Authoritative pattern Positive outcomes seen in all ethnic groups More common in white families and middle class Usually more common among intact families Least common among Asian Americans
- 32. Figure 8.6 Social Class, Ethnicity, and Parenting Style
- 33. Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status and Parenting Styles Authoritarian pattern in Asian American families High levels of school achievement in Asian American children Economic success Maintenance of ethnic identity
- 34. Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status and Parenting Styles Authoritarian pattern in African American families Enhances children’s potential for self- control and success Prepares children to deal with social forces such as racism that impede social success Reduces use of substance abuse
- 35. What kind of parenting style was used to raise you? What effects did it have on your development? What style will you use as a parent? What can single parents do to improve the developmental progress of their children? Questions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To Ponder
- 36. Family Relationships and Structure Family Structure: Diversity in Two-Parent and Single-Parent Families Only 70% of U.S. children lived with both biological parents in 2007. Many children from two-parent families have experienced single-parenting. 2% of U.S. children live with custodial grandparents.
- 37. Ethnicity and U.S. Family Types Figure 8.7 Ethnicity and Family Structure
- 38. Family Structure and Ethnicity Single Parents Family Structure: Single-Parent Families More common among African Americans and Native Americans Single mothers are less likely to marry. Grandparents and other relatives traditionally help support single mothers. Some single mothers are financially secure.
- 39. Family Relationships and Structure Other Types of Family Structures Custodial Grandparents Aging and parenting stress cause anxiety and depression. Gay and Lesbian Parents No expressed social or cognitive developmental differences between the children of gay and lesbian parents and the children of heterosexual couples.
- 40. Family Relationships and Structure Divorce: Impact on Children
- 41. True or False? When considering the psychological effects on children, the optimal family structure has two biological parents. Use information from your text to support your answer.
- 42. Family Relationships and Structure Understanding Results from Psychological Research • Parenthood or divorce reduces financial and emotional resources available to a child • Any transition involves upheaval • Authoritative parenting likely diminishes during upheaval • Extended family networks mitigate impact
- 43. Peer Relationships Kinds of Play Successful play associated with development of social skills
- 44. Peer Relationships Group Entry and Play Poor group entry skills Lead to aggressive behaviors Optimize peer rejection May change with social skills training to help gain acceptance for rejected children
- 45. Can you define two types of aggression? Aggression: Behavior intended to hurt another or object Instrumental Hostile Under what circumstances would you most likely observe each kinds of preschool aggression?
- 46. Peer Relationships Why does aggression change during preschool years?
- 47. Peer Relationships Development of Aggression Aggression Theories Aggression-frustration hypothesis Reinforcement and modeling hypothesis (Bandura) Trait aggression (genetic base) Environmental influence
- 48. Prosocial Behavior and Friendships Prosocial behavior: Actions that benefit or help another person Development of prosocial behavior increases during preschool years. Parental influences affect children’s empathy.
- 49. Prosocial Behavior and Friendships Friendships 18 months: some toddlers express friendships 3 years: 20% of preschoolers have stable playmate 4 Years: 30% of time spent with another child Early friendships become more stable with time, but are still primitive by adult standards.
Notas do Editor
- Freud: Gain control over bodily functions and renegotiate parent relationships Anal Stage Toilet training battles Control over bodily functions Phallic Stage Oedipus or Electra Complex Identification with the same sex parent
- Freud and Erikson saw the changing role of the parent as the child exerts more control on the environment. Freud and Erikson did not talk about peers or their significance in development. Erikson: agreed with Freud with added focus on social skill development Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt Centered around toddler’s new mobility and desire for autonomy Initiative versus Guilt Ushered in by new cognitive skills Developing conscience dictates boundaries
- Preschoolers’ perceptions are inconsistent because they base them on their most recent interactions with individuals. Preschoolers categorize based on race, gender, and age. Cross-race effect – individuals are more likely to remember faces of people of their own race than those of a different race. Preschoolers talk about “big kids” and “little kids.” Preschoolers self-segregate by gender and this begins as early as 2. They also sometimes segregate themselves according to race. Cross race effect phenomena by 5 years
- Social conventions Rules that serve to regulate behavior Moral rules Regulations based on individual or society’s sense of right and wrong Preschoolers respond differently to social rules and moral rules between 2 and 3 Understanding develops on basis of increased cognitive capabilities and adult emphasis of moral transgressions
- A child saying, “It was an accident . . . . I didn’t mean to do it,” when about to be punished indicates an understanding that intentional wrongdoing is punished more severely than unintentional transgressions of the rules. Recent research suggests that children do understand intentions to some degree. Understand that punishment is for intentional acts Can make judgments about actors’ intentions when faced with abstract problems and with punishment But still can be bound by consequences in their judgments
- Early judgments reflect ego thinking and immature cognitive structures versus true racism Understanding of cultural racial stereotypes and prejudices slowly acquired-age 5
- True
- Playmate “good” if failed to hit other child with ball Suggest children know more about intentions than Piaget thought
- Self-Concept Categorical Self Focus on visible characteristics Emotional Self Acquisition of emotional self-regulation Associated with peer popularity Lack of control associated with aggression Ability to obey moral rules Associated with emergence of empathy Social Self Child sees self as player in social games Learns many social scripts, which provide appropriate situational behaviors Personality begins to replace temperament as children interact with peers and family. Control of emotions shifts from parental control to the child. Children begin to internalize the values of the parent. Parents who expect age-related behaviors increase the switch to self control.
- Psychoanalytic Explanations Identification with same sex parent Social-Cognitive Explanations Linked to gender-related behavior Becomes motivated to exhibit same-sex behaviors Parents shape sex role behaviors and attitudes Gender Schema Theory Learn gender scripts Learn likes and dislikes of own gender Develops a complex view of other gender
- Gender understanding develops in stages: Gender identity Child’s ability to label his or her own sex correctly Gender stability Understanding that you are the same gender throughout life Gender constancy Recognition that someone stays the same gender even though appearances may change with clothing
- Gender schema theory: development of gender schema underlies gender development and occurs with recognition of gender differences Schema organize process of thinking and remembering First primitive gender schema is assimilation of experiences
- Women associated with gentleness, weakness, appreciativeness, and soft-heartedness Men associated with aggression, strength, cruelty, and coarseness. Children learn these stereotypes by 3 or 4 Can assign stereotypical behaviors to jobs, toys, and activities By age 5, children begin to associate personality traits with gender
- Develops earlier than ideas about gender 18 – 24 months – children prefer sex-stereotyped toys Age 3 – children prefer same-sex friends Learn from older same-sex children Sex-typed behaviors are learned differently. Girls use an enabling style Supporting a friend, expressing agreement, making suggestions Boys use a constricting or restrictive style Derails inappropriate interactions, bringing them to an end
- Securely attached preschoolers exhibit fewer behavior problems Insecurely attached children display more anger and aggression at daycare and preschool By age 4, children form goal-corrected partnerships Relationships continues to exist even when the partners are apart Internal model of attachment begins to generalzie
- Diana Baumrind Focused on 4 dimensions Warmth or nurturance Clarity and consistency of rules Maturity of expectations and demands Communications between child and parent Three parenting styles Authoritarian Permissive Authoritative Maccoby and Miller add uninvolved, neglecting
- Maccoby and Martin expanded on Baumrind’s categories
- Traits last well into high school
- Most consistently positive outcomes
- Maccoby and Martin add the Uninvolved Type Most consistently negative outcomes
- Making the grade Grades varied with parenting style in Steinberg and Dombusch’s Study. Can you think of a way to explain this?
- Authoritative Parents More likely to be involved in child’s school Inductive discipline Strategy in which parents explain to the child why a punished behavior is wrong Helps children in preschool to gain control of their behavior and gain perspective of other’s feelings
- ST: works; temporarily reduces undesirable behavior LT: models infliction of pain; associates spanking parents with physical pain; leads to family climate of emotional rejection; higher levels of aggression between children who are spanked and those who are not Premack’s principle: Any high-frequency activity can be used as a reinforcer for any lower-frequency activity.
- See Figure 8.4, page 206. Teenagers raised in and authoritative household showed more self-reliance and less delinquency in whites and Hispanics. Strong connections between authoritarian pattern and school performance and social competence appear for Asian Americans and African Americans.
- Key variables may be parenting goals rather than ethnicity Parenting style may be related to style which enhances child’s potential for success
- More common among poor families
- Estimate of 3 family types among white, African American, Asian American, Native American, and Hispanic American children in U.S.
- More common among African Americans and Native Americans These groups have higher rates of births to single mothers Single mothers are less likely to marry Grandparents and other relatives traditionally help support single mothers Look at Figure 8.5 Look at Figure 8.6
- Concerns about children’s sex-role identity and orientation are not supported by research
- Children in step-parent families have higher rates of delinquency, more behavior problems, and lower grades Divorce Creates financial hardships. Transitions create upheaval lasting several years. Parenting patterns shifts away from authoritative. Extended families can mitigate some difficulties with divorce.
- Supports suggestion that optimal family structure is two biological parents Single parenting when poverty is an issue correlates with negative effects on development Children of single parents Twice as likely to drop out of high school Twice as likely to have a child by 20 Less likely to have a steady job Preschoolers are less cognitively and socially advanced
- Solitary play All ages of children Parallel play 14 – 18 months Cooperative play 3 – 4 years old
- 3-year-old girls engage in more parallel play. 3-year-old boys tended to be aggressive and rejected. Social skills training helps to gain acceptance for rejected children Poor group entry skills display differently in boys and girls Girls spend more time in parallel rather than cooperative play Boys use tend to use aggression when rejected Poor group entry skills put children at risk for development of high risk internal working model of relationships
- Initial aggression in 2 – 3-year-olds Hitting and throwing things Instrumental – intended to obtain something a child wants Older children Hostile aggression – used to hurt another or to gain advantage With good verbal skills comes verbal aggression Physical aggression declines as dominance hierarchies emerge Dominance hierarchies – arrangements of children into pecking order of leaders and followers.
- Aggression-frustration hypothesis Declines with communication skills Reinforcement and modeling of aggression Trait aggression Personality style that develops as a way of life May have genetic basis Seen in abusive families Lack of affection in families Aggressive children lag behind in understanding other children’s intentions, can improve with training
- Aggression-frustration hypothesis Declines with communication skills Reinforcement and modeling of aggression Trait aggression Personality style that develops as a way of life May have genetic basis Seen in abusive families Lack of affection in families Aggressive children lag behind in understanding other children’s intentions, can improve with training
- Development of Prosocial Behavior Evident at 2 – 3 years of age Some behaviors increase with age Children who show altruistic behaviors are popular with peers Parental Influences Loving and warm family climate Explain consequences clearly to children Provide prosocial attributions – positive statements about the underlying cause for helpful behavior
- Become more stable with time Early friendships related to social competence