1. The difference between written and
spoken language
• Written grammar
 Sentence is the basic unit of
construction
 Clauses are often embedded
(subordination)
 Sub+verb+object construction
 Reported speech favored
 Precision favored
 Little ellipsis
 No question tags
 No performance effects
• Spoken grammar
 Clause is the basic unit of
construction
 Clauses are usually added (coord)
 Head+body+tail construction
 Direct speech favored
 Vagueness tolerated
 A lot of ellipsis
 Many question tags
 Performance effects:
 Hesitations
 Repeats
 False starts
 Incompletion
 Systanctic blends

2. So…What is SPEAKING?
• It is the vocalized form of human communication. It
is a process that starts in the mind.
• Speaking includes 4 competencies:
 Grammatical
 Discoursive
 Strategic
 Sociocultural

3. Bibliographical references:
• Brown Douglas, Teaching by principles, USA, Pearson-
Longman
• Richards Jack, Renandya Willy, Methodology in
Language Teaching, UK, Cambridge University Press,
2005
• Thornbury Scott, How to Teach Speaking, UK,
Pearson-Longman, 2005