1. Real World Haskell:
Lecture 2
Bryan O’Sullivan
2009-10-14

2. My homework, using only concepts from last week
import Data . L i s t ( i s I n f i x O f )
pattern = ” toast ”
f o r m a t number l i n e = show number ++ ” : ” ++ l i n e
g r e p number i n p u t
= i f null input
then [ ]
e l s e i f i s I n f i x O f p a t t e r n ( head i n p u t )
then f o r m a t number ( head i n p u t )
: g r e p ( number + 1 ) ( t a i l i n p u t )
else g r e p ( number + 1 ) ( t a i l i n p u t )
grepFromOne i n p u t = u n l i n e s ( g r e p 1 ( l i n e s i n p u t ) )
main = i n t e r a c t grepFromOne

3. Wasn’t Haskell supposed to be “pretty”?
That grep function sure didn’t look pretty to me!
But what, specifically, is ugly about it?
We repeat ourselves, using head and tail twice.
There’s a mess of nested if /else badness going on.

4. Lists, revisited
There are two ways to construct a list:
An empty list
[]
A non-empty list
firstElement : restOfList
We refer to [] and : as list constructors, since they construct list
values.

5. Lists, constructed
Knowing about these constructors, how might we construct a
4-element list?

6. Lists, constructed
Knowing about these constructors, how might we construct a
4-element list?
1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : []
The bracketed notation we saw last week is syntactic sugar for the
form above.
In other words, any time you see this:
[1,2,3,4]
You can read it as this, and vice versa:
1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : []

7. Lists, misconstrued
Beginner mistake alert:
A list must end with an empty list. So a construction like this
makes no sense:
’a’ : ’b’ : ’c’
How would we fix it up?
’a’ : ’b’ : ’c’ : []

8. Back to our roots
Remember the fragment of square root code from last week?
oneRoot a b c = (−b + ( b ˆ2 + 4∗ a ∗ c ) ) / ( 2 ∗ a )
If we pass in a value of zero for a, the root is undefined, since we’d
be dividing by zero.
oneRoot a b c = i f a == 0
then (−b + ( b ˆ2 − 4∗ a ∗ c ) )
/ (2∗ a )
e l s e e r r o r ” d i v i d e by z e r o ! ”

9. But...
I don’t like that if , because how would we write this using
mathematical notation?
−b ± (b 2 − 4ac)
roots(a, b, c) = if a = 0
2a
= undefined otherwise
And . . . isn’t Haskell supposed to be mathematically inspired?

10. Introducing guards
A guard is a Boolean expression preceded by a vertical bar
character.
oneRoot a b c
| a /= 0 = (−b + ( b ˆ2 − 4∗ a ∗ c ) ) / ( 2 ∗ a )
| o t h e r w i s e = e r r o r ” d i v i d e by z e r o ”
Guards are evaluated in top-to-bottom order.
For the first one that evaluates to True, the expression on the
right of the = sign is used as the result of the function.
The name otherwise is simply another name for True.

11. Using guards
Here’s a second attempt at our grep function, this time using
guarded expressions:
g r e p number i n p u t
| null input
= []
| i s I n f i x O f p a t t e r n ( head i n p u t )
= f o r m a t number ( head i n p u t )
: g r e p ( number + 1 ) ( t a i l i n p u t )
| otherwise
= g r e p ( number + 1 ) ( t a i l i n p u t )

12. How did this help?
We got rid of the nested if expressions, and our “flatter” code is
easier to follow.
It’s still fugly and repetitive, though. What about head and tail ?

13. Pattern matching
When we construct a list, the Haskell runtime has to remember
what constructors we used.
It goes a step further, and makes this information available to us.
We can examine the structure of a piece of data at runtime using
pattern matching.

14. Pattern matching on an empty list
What’s the length of an empty list?
myLength [ ] = 0
This is a function of one argument.
If that argument matches the empty-list constructor, our function
returns the value 0.

15. Pattern matching on a non-empty list
What’s the length of a non-empty list?
myLength ( x : x s ) = 1 + myLength x s
If our argument matches the non-empty-list constructor “:”, then:
the head of the list is bound to the name x;
the tail to xs;
and the expression is returned with those bindings.

16. Aaaand it’s over to you
Now that we know how pattern matching works, let’s do some
super-simple exercises:
Write versions of the head and tail functions:
head [1 ,2 ,3]
== > 1
tail [ ’a’ , ’b’ , ’c ’]
== > [ ’b’ , ’c ’]
Give your versions different names, or you’ll have a hard time
trying them out in ghci.

17. Matching alternative patterns
We combine our two pattern matches into one function definition
by writing them one after the other:
myLength [ ] = 0
myLength ( x : x s ) = 1 + myLength x s
As with guards, pattern matching proceeds from top to bottom
and stops at the first success.
The RHS of the first pattern that succeeds is used as the
body of the function.

18. Matching alternative patterns
We combine our two pattern matches into one function definition
by writing them one after the other:
myLength [ ] = 0
myLength ( x : x s ) = 1 + myLength x s
As with guards, pattern matching proceeds from top to bottom
and stops at the first success.
The RHS of the first pattern that succeeds is used as the
body of the function.
Question: What do you suppose happens if no pattern matches?

19. Over to you, part two
And now that we know how to write function definitions that can
deal with multiple patterns, another exercise:
Write a version of the take function:
take 3 [100 ,200 ,300 ,400 ,500]
==> [100 ,200 ,300]
take 3 [ ’a’ , ’b ’]
==> [ ’a’ , ’b ’]
take 3 []
==> ???

20. Over to you, part two
And now that we know how to write function definitions that can
deal with multiple patterns, another exercise:
Write a version of the take function:
take 3 [100 ,200 ,300 ,400 ,500]
==> [100 ,200 ,300]
take 3 [ ’a’ , ’b ’]
==> [ ’a’ , ’b ’]
take 3 []
==> ???
Now use ghci to figure out what the drop function does, and
write a version of that.

21. Metasyntactic variables
Languages have their cultural habits, and Haskell is no exception.
You’ll very often see the names used when pattern matching a list
follow a naming convention like this:
(x: xs)
(y: ys)
(d:ds)
and so on.
Think of the “s” suffix as “pluralizing” a name, so “x” (ex) is the
head of the list, and “xs” (exes) is the rest.

22. Matching multiple patterns
We can match more than one pattern at a time.
Consider how we might add the elements of two vectors,
represented as lists:
sumVec ( x : x s ) ( y : y s ) = x + y : sumVec x s y s
sumVec [ ] [] = []

23. Combining pattern matching and guards
Things start to get seriously expressive when we combine language
features.
Remember that bloated grep definition from earlier? Let’s put our
new friends to work!
grep n [ ] = []
grep n ( x : xs )
| i s I n f i x O f pattern x = format n x
: g r e p ( n+1) x s
| otherwise = g r e p ( n+1) x s

24. What’s happening here?
When we define a function, a pattern binds names to values. Given
a list and a pattern (x: xs), if the list is non-empty, then x is bound
to its head, and xs to its tail.
Then each guard (if any) associated with that pattern is
evaluated in turn, with those bindings in effect, until a guard
succeeds.
Once a guard succeeds, its RHS is used as the result, with the
bindings from that pattern still in effect.
If the pattern match fails, or no guard succeeds, we fall
through to the next pattern and its guards.

25. What’s happening here?
When we define a function, a pattern binds names to values. Given
a list and a pattern (x: xs), if the list is non-empty, then x is bound
to its head, and xs to its tail.
Then each guard (if any) associated with that pattern is
evaluated in turn, with those bindings in effect, until a guard
succeeds.
Once a guard succeeds, its RHS is used as the result, with the
bindings from that pattern still in effect.
If the pattern match fails, or no guard succeeds, we fall
through to the next pattern and its guards.
Note: If all patterns and guards in a function definition were to fail
on some input, we’d get a runtime error. That would be bad.

26. And speaking of bad. . .
Remember our sumVec function?
sumVec ( x : x s ) ( y : y s ) = x + y : sumVec x s y s
sumVec [ ] [] = []
What happens if we apply this to lists of different lengths?
sumVec [1,2,3] [4,5,6,7,8]

27. And speaking of bad. . .
Remember our sumVec function?
sumVec ( x : x s ) ( y : y s ) = x + y : sumVec x s y s
sumVec [ ] [] = []
What happens if we apply this to lists of different lengths?
sumVec [1,2,3] [4,5,6,7,8]
So . . . what can we do about that exciting behaviour?

28. One possible response
Let’s declare that the sum of two vectors should end when we
reach the end of the shorter vector.
sumVec ( x : x s ) ( y : y s ) = x + y : sumVec x s y s
sumVec what ever = []
Whoa, dude. . . Why does this work?

29. One possible response
Let’s declare that the sum of two vectors should end when we
reach the end of the shorter vector.
sumVec ( x : x s ) ( y : y s ) = x + y : sumVec x s y s
sumVec what ever = []
Whoa, dude. . . Why does this work?
The names “what” and “ever” are patterns.
However, a plain name (with no constructors in sight) does
not inspect the structure of its argument.
So “what” and “ever” will each happily match either an
empty or a non-empty list.

30. An aside: strings are lists
In Haskell, we write characters surrounded by single quotes, and
strings in double quotes. Strings are lists, so:
” abc ”
is syntactic sugar for
[ ’ a ’ , ’b ’ , ’c ’ ]
and hence for
’a ’ : ’b ’ : ’c ’ : [ ]
Functions that can manipulate lists can thus manipulate strings.
Oh, and escape sequences such as ”rnt” work, too.

31. We are not limited to one constructor per pattern
Suppose we want to squish consecutive repeats of an element in a
list.
compress ” f o o o b a r r r r r r ”
== ” f o b a r ”
>
We can write a function to do this using an elegant combination of
pattern matching and guards:
compress ( x : y : ys )
| x == y = compress ( y : ys )
| otherwise = x : compress ( y : ys )
compress ys = ys
Notice that our pattern matches on two consecutive list
constructors!

32. Homework
Write a function that returns the nth element of a list,
counting from zero.
nth 2 ” squeak ”
== ’ u ’
>
Write a function that returns the element immdiately before
the last element of a list.
lastButOne [1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5]
== 4
>
Write a function that determines whether its input is a
palindrome.
isPalindrome ” foobar ”
== F a l s e
>
isPalindrome ” foobarraboof ”
== True
>