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Surface tension
Surface tension is due to molecular forces. In general, a fluid is made
of molecules that attract and that, at the same time can also move around.
The attractive force between the two particles and be represented by arrows.
We can also use a dashed line to represent an attractive energy. The
shorter the dashed line the larger the attractive enery and also the larger
the attractive force. If we build a cluster of many particles it could look
like this: Note that a molecule within the “bulk” of the cluster, like the one
marked as A, is pulled in all directions with roughly the same force: the
forces are compensated. On the other hand, the molecule marked as B is
pulled by molecules 1 and 2 towards the cluster.
As a result, the molecules organize themselves to a shape in which the
forces are as compensated as possible: the sphere. The spherical shape has
the minimum surface area for a given volume (in this case for a given number
of molecules, since each molecule occupies the same amount of volume).
This is why a drop of water is spherical. If we distort the drop, it “wants”
to come back to its spherical shape, and the force pulling it back is what
we call surface tension. This tension acts in a similar way as the stretched
rubber in a balloon: if we distort the balloon and then release it, it comes
back to the spherical shape.
1
The form of a stream of water as is issues from a faucet
Water exits a faucet in a stream that has a cross section governed by the
shape of the faucet aperture. Surface tension causes a freely-falling stream
of water to seek a circular cross section. But if the faucet aperture is not
perfectly circular, then the cross section of the stream moves toward the
circular but overshoots and becomes elliptical in the other direction, then
seeks to become circular, overshoots again, ....
2
This goes on may (4-10) times before the surface tension also affects the
vertical motion and the stream from the faucet breaks into droplets. A very
weak stream of eater emerging from a nearly circular aperture may go imme-
diately into a circular cross section without overshoot. This happens when
the mass of the water in the stream is small enough to be strongly controlled
by the surface tension. Analogous behavior is seen in soap bubbles; big ones
wiggle noticeably and small ones remain spherical in shape.
The necklace instability
Water (and fluids in general) want to minimize their surface area. If for
a minute we force them to have the shape of a cylinder, like in the case
we discussed of the water issuing from a faucet, the water tends to deform
towards a shape close to one consisting of droplets.
A cylinder of fluid deforms itself and tends to break up into droplets
Spider webs have af a glue-like
silk for use in prey capture - that
is, a silk that remained liquid
rather than being produced as a
fibre. This liquid breakes into
droplets as shown.
Icicles on his clothesline captures
a phenomenon of the necklace
instability
A fast picture of a jet from an ink-
jet preinter showing the necklace
intsability
A water piddler demo showing
how water breaks up into drops
3
We say that the cylindrical shape is unstable and the more stable sit-
uation is a necklace of just the fluid breaking into spheres. This kind of
necklace is seen in spider webs and, ink jets and many other situations.
Drops versus bubbles
A single drop wants to adopt a spherical shape. If we now put in contact
two drops, the two surfaces become one, and the combined drop forms a
larger sphere:
On the other hand, a bubble has an outer surface and an inner surface,
each of them spherical. If we put in contact two bubbles, we go from four
surfaces to three surfaces (one outer and two inner surfaces). The shape
that minimizes area in this case is a double bubble:
Planes form when bubbles meet
4
Frames
When a soap film is constrained to touch the edges of frames, many
interesting geometrical shapes are observed. These are called “minimal sur-
faces”. By experimentation we discover that always three surfaces converge
to a line and four lines converge to a point.
Wetting
What we have just said is valid for a drop of water (or any other liquid)
in “free space”. Actually, it has been proposed as a method to create perfect
spheres to let a liquid cool in free space.
What if we put a liquid in contact with a flat surface of glass? Here we
will also have to take into account the attractive force between the liquid
molecules and the glass molecules. Two quite different situations can arise:
We indicated with solid lines the interaction between the water molecules
and the glass molecules. If this interaction is much larger than the interac-
tion between water molecules the liquid wets the surface. Whether a fluid
wets a surface or not depends on the relation between the interaction of the
fluid molecules among themselves and and the interaction between the glass
molecules and the surface molecules.
5
The effect of gravity
“Drinking” tea in the space station
So far we have neglected gravity, and the shape of a drop partially wetting
a glass will be a spherical cap it we were on a spaceship. If we consider
gravity the shape of the drop will be different if the drop is above or below
the surface:
A small enough drop does not fall because of the attraction between the
surface molecules and the water molecules.
Here is another familiar case in which the action of gravity on a fluid
is apparent: filling up a glass of water. Because of the force of gravity the
surface of the liquid is horizontal. Now consider what happens close to the
walls. We have seen that water wets glass partially. This means that the
water molecules at the surface will rather be touching the glass and will try
6
to move towards the glass and distort the surface. For a large flat surface,
like the one in a rectangular fish tank, the result is a surface like this:
One could ask why the water does not keep climbing in the glass. The
reason is that the force of gravity pulls the water molecules down and an
equilibrium is reached with the surface distorted as above, generating a
shape called the “meniscus”. Note that most of the molecules located above
the undistorted surface are not enjoying the attraction of the glass surface.
If instead of a large flat surface we had a long cylinder of small radius,
then a lot of water molecules could take advantage of the attraction to the
surface and climb higher. This effect is called capillarity, and was observed
by Leonardo da Vinci in 1490, who was surprised by the rising of liquid
in small tubes. The smaller the diameter of the tube the higher the water
climbs.
If a paintbrush is dipped part way into water, the water will rise up into
the narrow spaces between the bristles by capillary action. This is also how
oil soaks upward in a lamp wick and water into a bath towel when one end
7
hangs in water. Dip one end of a lump of sugar in coffee, and the entire
lump is quickly wet. Capillary action is crucial is essential for plant growth.
It brings water to the roots of plants and carries sap to high branches of
trees.
From the point of view of an insect capillarity is not so nice. Since an
insect has a lot of surface area compared to larger animals. Being in the
grip of water may be fatal for an insect–unless it is equipped for water like
a water strider.
The effect of soap
Soaps made from animal fat and wood ashes seem to have been used
only for medical purposes in antiquity; not until the 2nd century AD were
they recognized as cleaning agents. Although soap was made at home for
laundry purposes in the European Middle ages and early modern times,
cake soap was a luxury product that came into common use only in the
19th century. Without getting too much into the detailed chemistry, soap
es formed by large molecules with a head and a tail. Although the soap
molecules interact weakly among themselves, they interact rather strongly
with the water molecules: the tails are repelled and the heads are attracted
by the water molecules. This implies that, when soap is dissolved in water,
the soap molecules migrate to the surface:
Since the interaction between soap molecules is weak, the surface tension
decreases.
The long portion of the soap molecule, the part that hates water (also
called “hydrophobic”) attaches easily to grease. In washing, the hydropho-
bic end of the soap molecule attaches itself to grease on your dirty plate,
letting water seep in underneath. The particle of grease is pried loose and
surrounded by soap molecules, to be carried off by a flood of water.
An interesting demonstration that yo can try in the kitchen is to float
8
pepper grains in a glass of water and then touch the surface with a soapy
finger.
The pepper moves away from the finger. This is again due to the decrease
in surface tension of the soapy region. The non–soapy part, having a higher
tension, contracts and drags with it the pepper grains.
Floating of dense objects due surface tension
The surface tension of a fluid is a true tension that shows up in different
phenomena. Water bugs, for example, can float supported by the surface
tension. Let’s look closely at this. When a paper clip or a bug is floating, the
water surface is distorted. Since the water surface acts as a tense membrane,
each portion of the perimeter pulls the clip upwards and prevents if from
sinking. Therefore what determines whether an object can be supported by
surface tension is the perimeter of the distorted surface. This is why the
surface tension is measured in force per unit length. In particular,
9
Surface tension of water = 0.0004
Pounds
inch
This looks like a small number but is enough to support some objects.
For a paper clip, the perimeter is around a couple of inches, which means
that the water is capable of supporting a weight of about 0.0008 Pounds,
which is roughly the weight of a paper clip. If we add soap, the surface
tension decreases three times, and is now not enough to support the weight
of the clip and it sinks.
Caution: Do not confuse the floating due to surface tension with the
floating due to buoyancy, which will be discussed later. Ships and wood float
because they are less dense than water. A piece of wood will float regardless
of its shape. On the other hand, if we change the shape of a paper clip and
make it spherical, the perimeter of the deformed surface will be smaller and
the surface tension will not be enough to keep it afloat.
Schematics of the water surface distortion for the floating paper clip experiment. The surface
acts as a tense membrane. We can imagine the perimeter of the clip as divided in segments of
length L, each of them pulling by a force F. Therfore, the larger the perimeter of the object the
likely it will float.
Review questions
The hairs of a wet brush come together. Can you explain why? (The
same happens to your hair when it’s wet.)
Why does water thrown on hot pan breaks up in little (almost) spheri-
cal drops that quickly fly away? This is the Leidenfrost effect, named after
Johann Gottlieb Leidenfrost, who discussed it in A Tract About Some Qual-
ities of Common Water in 1756.
Why does rain fall in drops rather than a stream like from the bath
faucet?
10
PHY 120 designRobot swimming insect made at MITReal insect
Question. The PHY120 insect will not walk on water. Why?
11

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Tension superficial y capilaridad

  • 1. Surface tension Surface tension is due to molecular forces. In general, a fluid is made of molecules that attract and that, at the same time can also move around. The attractive force between the two particles and be represented by arrows. We can also use a dashed line to represent an attractive energy. The shorter the dashed line the larger the attractive enery and also the larger the attractive force. If we build a cluster of many particles it could look like this: Note that a molecule within the “bulk” of the cluster, like the one marked as A, is pulled in all directions with roughly the same force: the forces are compensated. On the other hand, the molecule marked as B is pulled by molecules 1 and 2 towards the cluster. As a result, the molecules organize themselves to a shape in which the forces are as compensated as possible: the sphere. The spherical shape has the minimum surface area for a given volume (in this case for a given number of molecules, since each molecule occupies the same amount of volume). This is why a drop of water is spherical. If we distort the drop, it “wants” to come back to its spherical shape, and the force pulling it back is what we call surface tension. This tension acts in a similar way as the stretched rubber in a balloon: if we distort the balloon and then release it, it comes back to the spherical shape. 1
  • 2. The form of a stream of water as is issues from a faucet Water exits a faucet in a stream that has a cross section governed by the shape of the faucet aperture. Surface tension causes a freely-falling stream of water to seek a circular cross section. But if the faucet aperture is not perfectly circular, then the cross section of the stream moves toward the circular but overshoots and becomes elliptical in the other direction, then seeks to become circular, overshoots again, .... 2
  • 3. This goes on may (4-10) times before the surface tension also affects the vertical motion and the stream from the faucet breaks into droplets. A very weak stream of eater emerging from a nearly circular aperture may go imme- diately into a circular cross section without overshoot. This happens when the mass of the water in the stream is small enough to be strongly controlled by the surface tension. Analogous behavior is seen in soap bubbles; big ones wiggle noticeably and small ones remain spherical in shape. The necklace instability Water (and fluids in general) want to minimize their surface area. If for a minute we force them to have the shape of a cylinder, like in the case we discussed of the water issuing from a faucet, the water tends to deform towards a shape close to one consisting of droplets. A cylinder of fluid deforms itself and tends to break up into droplets Spider webs have af a glue-like silk for use in prey capture - that is, a silk that remained liquid rather than being produced as a fibre. This liquid breakes into droplets as shown. Icicles on his clothesline captures a phenomenon of the necklace instability A fast picture of a jet from an ink- jet preinter showing the necklace intsability A water piddler demo showing how water breaks up into drops 3
  • 4. We say that the cylindrical shape is unstable and the more stable sit- uation is a necklace of just the fluid breaking into spheres. This kind of necklace is seen in spider webs and, ink jets and many other situations. Drops versus bubbles A single drop wants to adopt a spherical shape. If we now put in contact two drops, the two surfaces become one, and the combined drop forms a larger sphere: On the other hand, a bubble has an outer surface and an inner surface, each of them spherical. If we put in contact two bubbles, we go from four surfaces to three surfaces (one outer and two inner surfaces). The shape that minimizes area in this case is a double bubble: Planes form when bubbles meet 4
  • 5. Frames When a soap film is constrained to touch the edges of frames, many interesting geometrical shapes are observed. These are called “minimal sur- faces”. By experimentation we discover that always three surfaces converge to a line and four lines converge to a point. Wetting What we have just said is valid for a drop of water (or any other liquid) in “free space”. Actually, it has been proposed as a method to create perfect spheres to let a liquid cool in free space. What if we put a liquid in contact with a flat surface of glass? Here we will also have to take into account the attractive force between the liquid molecules and the glass molecules. Two quite different situations can arise: We indicated with solid lines the interaction between the water molecules and the glass molecules. If this interaction is much larger than the interac- tion between water molecules the liquid wets the surface. Whether a fluid wets a surface or not depends on the relation between the interaction of the fluid molecules among themselves and and the interaction between the glass molecules and the surface molecules. 5
  • 6. The effect of gravity “Drinking” tea in the space station So far we have neglected gravity, and the shape of a drop partially wetting a glass will be a spherical cap it we were on a spaceship. If we consider gravity the shape of the drop will be different if the drop is above or below the surface: A small enough drop does not fall because of the attraction between the surface molecules and the water molecules. Here is another familiar case in which the action of gravity on a fluid is apparent: filling up a glass of water. Because of the force of gravity the surface of the liquid is horizontal. Now consider what happens close to the walls. We have seen that water wets glass partially. This means that the water molecules at the surface will rather be touching the glass and will try 6
  • 7. to move towards the glass and distort the surface. For a large flat surface, like the one in a rectangular fish tank, the result is a surface like this: One could ask why the water does not keep climbing in the glass. The reason is that the force of gravity pulls the water molecules down and an equilibrium is reached with the surface distorted as above, generating a shape called the “meniscus”. Note that most of the molecules located above the undistorted surface are not enjoying the attraction of the glass surface. If instead of a large flat surface we had a long cylinder of small radius, then a lot of water molecules could take advantage of the attraction to the surface and climb higher. This effect is called capillarity, and was observed by Leonardo da Vinci in 1490, who was surprised by the rising of liquid in small tubes. The smaller the diameter of the tube the higher the water climbs. If a paintbrush is dipped part way into water, the water will rise up into the narrow spaces between the bristles by capillary action. This is also how oil soaks upward in a lamp wick and water into a bath towel when one end 7
  • 8. hangs in water. Dip one end of a lump of sugar in coffee, and the entire lump is quickly wet. Capillary action is crucial is essential for plant growth. It brings water to the roots of plants and carries sap to high branches of trees. From the point of view of an insect capillarity is not so nice. Since an insect has a lot of surface area compared to larger animals. Being in the grip of water may be fatal for an insect–unless it is equipped for water like a water strider. The effect of soap Soaps made from animal fat and wood ashes seem to have been used only for medical purposes in antiquity; not until the 2nd century AD were they recognized as cleaning agents. Although soap was made at home for laundry purposes in the European Middle ages and early modern times, cake soap was a luxury product that came into common use only in the 19th century. Without getting too much into the detailed chemistry, soap es formed by large molecules with a head and a tail. Although the soap molecules interact weakly among themselves, they interact rather strongly with the water molecules: the tails are repelled and the heads are attracted by the water molecules. This implies that, when soap is dissolved in water, the soap molecules migrate to the surface: Since the interaction between soap molecules is weak, the surface tension decreases. The long portion of the soap molecule, the part that hates water (also called “hydrophobic”) attaches easily to grease. In washing, the hydropho- bic end of the soap molecule attaches itself to grease on your dirty plate, letting water seep in underneath. The particle of grease is pried loose and surrounded by soap molecules, to be carried off by a flood of water. An interesting demonstration that yo can try in the kitchen is to float 8
  • 9. pepper grains in a glass of water and then touch the surface with a soapy finger. The pepper moves away from the finger. This is again due to the decrease in surface tension of the soapy region. The non–soapy part, having a higher tension, contracts and drags with it the pepper grains. Floating of dense objects due surface tension The surface tension of a fluid is a true tension that shows up in different phenomena. Water bugs, for example, can float supported by the surface tension. Let’s look closely at this. When a paper clip or a bug is floating, the water surface is distorted. Since the water surface acts as a tense membrane, each portion of the perimeter pulls the clip upwards and prevents if from sinking. Therefore what determines whether an object can be supported by surface tension is the perimeter of the distorted surface. This is why the surface tension is measured in force per unit length. In particular, 9
  • 10. Surface tension of water = 0.0004 Pounds inch This looks like a small number but is enough to support some objects. For a paper clip, the perimeter is around a couple of inches, which means that the water is capable of supporting a weight of about 0.0008 Pounds, which is roughly the weight of a paper clip. If we add soap, the surface tension decreases three times, and is now not enough to support the weight of the clip and it sinks. Caution: Do not confuse the floating due to surface tension with the floating due to buoyancy, which will be discussed later. Ships and wood float because they are less dense than water. A piece of wood will float regardless of its shape. On the other hand, if we change the shape of a paper clip and make it spherical, the perimeter of the deformed surface will be smaller and the surface tension will not be enough to keep it afloat. Schematics of the water surface distortion for the floating paper clip experiment. The surface acts as a tense membrane. We can imagine the perimeter of the clip as divided in segments of length L, each of them pulling by a force F. Therfore, the larger the perimeter of the object the likely it will float. Review questions The hairs of a wet brush come together. Can you explain why? (The same happens to your hair when it’s wet.) Why does water thrown on hot pan breaks up in little (almost) spheri- cal drops that quickly fly away? This is the Leidenfrost effect, named after Johann Gottlieb Leidenfrost, who discussed it in A Tract About Some Qual- ities of Common Water in 1756. Why does rain fall in drops rather than a stream like from the bath faucet? 10
  • 11. PHY 120 designRobot swimming insect made at MITReal insect Question. The PHY120 insect will not walk on water. Why? 11