Koppen classification 2011

Koppen Climatic Classification System 2011
Friday, June 07, 2013 Page 1
Submitted Topic: Kooppen Climatic Classification System
Submitted To: Sir.Salman Tariq
Submitted By: Atiqa Ijaz Khan
Roll no.: SS09-03
Date of Submission: 17th
–Nov-2011

1) The Classical Age of Climatic Classification 03
a. Kooppen System 03
b. Thornthwaite System 03
2) The Modified Koopen System 03
a. 1st
letter
b. 2nd
letter
c. 3rd
letter
3) Detailed Classification 07
a. Climate and Temperature 07
i. Tropical Moist 07
1. Af
2. Am
3. Aw
ii. Dry Climate 08
1. Bw
2. Bs
iii. Moist_subtropical Mid-latitude Climate 08
1. Cfa
2. Cfb
3. Cs
iv. Moist Continental Mid-latitude Climate 08
1. Dfa
2. Dfb
3. Dfw, Dfc, Dwd, Dwc
v. Polar Climate 09
1. ET
2. EF
b. Climate and Vegetation 09
i. Tropical Climate.
ii. Desert Climate
iii. Mid-latitude Climate
iv. Moist winters
v. Polar Climate
4) High lands 15
5) Short Summary 16
6) References 21

The Classical Age of Climatic Classification:
Because of the relatively short data records and the massive amount of the atmospheric data collected from
individual weather stations, the identification of the true climatic regions is a relatively recent endeavor.
This age has been broadly classified into two major types as:
1. Kooppen Climatic Classification: A widely used classification of world climates based on the annual and
monthly averages of temperature and precipitation was devised by the famous German scientist Waldimir
Köppen (1846– 1940). Initially published in 1918,the original Köppen classification system has since been
modified and refined. Faced with the lack of adequate observing stations throughout the world, Köppen related
the distribution and type of native vegetation to the various climates. In this way, climatic boundaries could be
approximated where no climatological data were available.
2. Thornthwaite Climatic Classification: This was formulated by C. Wrren Thornthwiate in 1931 and completed
in 1948. It represent an alternative to the Kooppen classification system.
The Modified Kooppen Classification System:
The Köppen Climate Classification System is the most widely used system for classifying the
world's climates. Its categories are based on the annual and monthly averages of temperature
and precipitation. The Köppen system recognizes five major climatic types; each type is
designated by a capital letter.
Classical age
of climatic
classification
Koopppen
Classification
Thornthwaite
Classififcation

1st
letter:
Code Type Description
A Tropical climate
 Monthly average temperature > 18°C
 No winter season
 Strong annual precipitations (higher than evaporation)
B
Dry climate /
Desert
 Annual evaporation higher than precipitations
 No permanent rivers
C
Hot moderate
climate
 The 3 coldest months average a temperature between -3°C and 18°C
 Hottest month average temperature > 10°C
 The summer and winter seasons are well defined
D
Cold moderate
climate
 Coldest month average temperature of the coldest month < -3°C
 Hottest month average temperature > 10°C
 The seasons summer and winter seasons are well defined
E Polar climate  Average temperature of the hottest month > 10°C
 The summer season is very little different from the rest of the year
2nd
letter:
Code Description Applies to
S  Steppe climate (semi-arid)
 Annual precipitations range between 380 and 760 mm
B
W  Dry (Arid and semi-arid) climates
 Annual precipitations < 250 mm
B
F
 Wet climate
 Precipitations occur every month of the year
 No dry season
A-C-D
W
 Dry season in winter
A-C-D

Examples:
1. Af: Tropical rain forest climate. Examples : Singapore, Belém, Brazil.
2. Aw: Tropical wet and dry or savanna climate. Examples : Bangalore, India, Veracruz, Mexico, Townsville,
Australia.
3. Am: Tropical monsoon climate. Examples : Conakry, Guinea, Chittagong, Bangladesh.
4. BS: steppe climate
5. BW: desert climate
6. Cf: humid moderate climate without dry seasons
7. CW: humid moderate climate with dry winter
8. Cs: Mediterranean climate : humid moderate climate with dry summer
9. Df: cold continental climate without dry season
10. Dw: cold continental climate with dry winter
11. ET: Tundra climate. Examples : Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada. Provideniya, Russia. Deception Island,
Antarctica. Longyearbyen, Svalbard.
12. EF: Ice cap climate
13. EM: subarctic maritime climate
S
 Dry season in summer
C
M
 Monsoon climate:
 Annual precipitations > 1500 mm
 Precipitations of the driest month < 60 mm
A
T
 Average temperature of the hottest month between 0 and 10°C
E
F
 Average temperature of the hottest month < 0°C
E
M  Abundant precipitations
 Mild winter
E

3rd
letter
A third letter allows us to refine the B,C and D climate types. It is related to the temperature variations.
Code Description
Appli
es to
a: hot summer
 Average temperature of the hottest month > 22°C
C-D
b: moderate summer  Average temperature of the hottest month < 22°C
 The 4 hottest months average temperatures > 10°C
C-D
C: short and cold
summer
 Average temperature of the hottest month < 22°C
 Monthly average temperatures > 10°C for less than 4 months
 Average temperature of the coldest month > -38°C
C-D
D: very cold winter
 Average temperature of the coldest month < -38°C
D
H: dry and heat
 Annual average temperature > 18°C
B
K: dry and cold
 Annual average temperature < 18°C
B
Examples :
1. BWh : Sahara
2. BWh : Yuma, Arizona
3. Cfb : France
4. Dfc : Siberia
5. Etw : Canada's Yukon Territory

Detailed Classification:
This detailed classification has been divided into two types as:
1-Climate and Temperature:
1) Tropical Moist Climates (A)
Tropical moist climates extend northward and southward from the equator to about 15 to 25
degrees of latitude. In these climates all months have average temperatures greater than 18
degrees Celsius. Annual precipitation is greater than 1500 mm.
Three minor Köppen climate types exist in the A group and their designation is based on seasonal distribution
of rainfall.
a) Af or tropical wet is a tropical the climate where precipitation occurs all year long. Monthly
temperature variations in this climate are less than 3 degrees Celsius. Because of intense surface
heating and high humidity cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds form early in the afternoons almost
every day. Daily highs are about 32 degrees Celsius while night time temperatures average 22
degrees Celsius.
b) Am is a tropical monsoon climate. Annual rainfall is equal to or greater than
Af, but falls in the 7 to 9 hottest months. During the dry season very little rainfall occurs.
c) Tropical wet and dry or savanna (Aw) has an extended dry season during winter. Precipitation
during the wet season is usually less than 1000 millimeters and only during the summer season.
Baobob and acia in East Africa
Detailed
Classification
Climate and
temperature
Climate and
Vegetation

2) Dry Climates (B)
The most obvious climatic feature of these climate is potential evaporation and transpiration
exceed precipitation. These climates extend from 20 - 35 degrees North and South of the equator
and in large continental regions of the mid-latitudes often surrounded by mountains. Minor types
of this climate include:
a) Bw - dry arid (desert) is a true desert climate. It covers 12 % of the earth's land surface
and is dominated by xerophytic vegetation.
b) Bs - dry semiarid (steppe). Is a grassland climate that covers 14% of the earth's land
surface. It receives more precipitation than the Bw either from the intertropical
convergence zone or from mid-latitude cyclones.
Cumulus cloud over steep grassland of Western
North America
3) Moist Subtropical Mid-Latitude Climates (C)
This climate generally has warm and humid summers with mild winters. Its extent is from 30 to 50
degrees of latitude mainly on the eastern and western borders of most continents. During the
winter the main weather feature is the mid-latitude cyclone. Convective thunderstorms dominate
summer months. Three minor types exist:
a) Cfa-humid subtropical: The humid subtropical climate (Cfa) has hot muggy summers and mainly
thunderstorms. Winters are mild and precipitation during this season comes from mid-latitude
cyclones. A good example of a Cfa climate is the southeastern USA.
b) Cfb- marine: climates are found on the western coasts of continents. They have a humid climate with short
dry summer. Heavy precipitation occurs during the mild winters because of continuous presence of
midlatitude cyclones.
c) Mediterranean climates (Cs): receive rain primarily during winter season from the mid-latitude
cyclone. Extreme summer aridity is caused by the sinking air of the subtropical highs and may exist for up to 5
months. Locations in North America are from Portland, Oregon to all of California.
4) Moist Continental Mid-latitude Climates (D)
Moist continental mid-latitude climates have warm to cool summers and cold winters. The location
of these climates is pole ward of the C climates. The warmest month is greater than 10 degrees
Celsius, while the coldest month is less than -30 degrees Celsius. Winters are severe with
snowstorms, strong winds, bitter cold from Continental Polar or Arctic air masses. Like the C
climates there are three minor types:
a) Hot summer (Dfa): Distinctive four seasons with marked temperature. US from eastern to Midwest
b) Mild summer (Dfb): Less precipitation,less humid and drier.
c) Subarctic(Dfc, Dfd, Dwd, Dwc): Serve winters with clear sky dominated by high pressure.

Conifers (Dw)
5) Polar Climates (E)
Polar climates have year-round cold temperatures with warmest month less than 10 degrees
Celsius. Polar climates are found on the northern coastal areas of North America and Europe,
Asia and on the landmasses of Greenland and Antarctica. Two minor climate types exist as:
a) ET or polar tundra is a climate where the soil is permanently frozen to depths of hundreds of meters, a
condition known as permafrost. Vegetation is dominated by mosses, lichens, dwarf trees and
scattered woody shrubs.
b) EF or polar ice caps has a surface that is permanently covered with
snow and ice.
2-Climate and vegetation
Koppen used vegetation groups to aid in climate classification. Koppen used definite temperature
and precipitation criteria to distinguish between climate types.
Tropical (A) Climates
All tropical climates are warm; the subdivisions are based on differences in preicipitation.
Tropical Rainforest (AF) Climate Located in the ITCZ (10-15 N/S).
Diurnal range in temperature is greater than the difference between the warmest and coolest
months (annual range).
Every month has precipitation and no month is deficient in rainfall. This high amount of rainfall
keeps the soil moisture at capacity.
a) Tropical Rainforest (AF) Climate
Vegetation Tropical rainforest vegetation is very closely associated with the tropical rainforest
climate.
Representative areas include: Amazon Basin Congo Basin in Africa, parts of the Indo-Malaysian
area of Asia.
The tropical rainforest is densely forested.
Three levels of vegetation are frequently recognized in the typical rainforest as:
Climate and Termperature
Tropical (A)
Af Am Aw
Dry(B)
Bs Bw
Mid-latitude(C)
Cfa Cfb Cs
Moist
contenental(D)
Dfa Dfb
Dfc, Dfb,
Dwd,
Dwc
Polar(E)
ET EF

 The high level consists of solitary giant trees that reach heights of 200 feet extending far
above the rest of the forest.
 The middle layer of trees grow to heights of 100-130 feet and makes a massive canopy
which sunlight has difficulty penetrating.
 Beneath the middle layer is the bottom portion of the forest which has little undergrowth
because of lack of sunlight.
The tree trunks are slender with few branches.The crowns begin at great heights where sunlight is
available.70% of all plant species growing in the tropical rainforest are trees.
There is great divesity of species with no pure stands of trees. A single acre may contain 50 species of trees. A
number of other plants other then trees have adapted themselves to the environment:
 Lianas - plants that do not have rigid stems, vine-like. They use trees as support to grow
towards the sunlight.
 Epiphytes - such as bromeliads and orchids make homes in the trees deriving moisture
from the air. Although the ground in the rainforest is clear from undergrowth it is difficult
to get around.
The soil is always wet so tree roots do not go deep into the soil.
Buttresses fan out 10-15 feet on all sides as support.
The soil in tropical rainforests is extremely poor, and is very acid. The luxuriant vegetation grows
in infertile soil.
Nutrients are locked up in the vegetation that falls to the forest floor. Since there are no
temperature or precipitation seasons here leaves fall when they die throughout the year. Thick
layers of plant material collect on the rainforest floor. This material decays quickly in the hot,
humid climate and releases its nutrients immediately. Extensive root systems close to the surface
soak up the nutrients quickly. If the rainforest is not disturbed, growth can go on indefinitely.
As soon as an area is deforested, intense leaching of the soil begins and remaining nutrients can
be depleted in several years. If these fields are abandoned, secondary forest moves in that may
take centuries to return to rainforest.
b) Tropical Monsoon (Am) Climate
Always hot, seasonally excessively moist. Similar to tropical rainforest (Af) climate in temperature
conditions.
Distinguish: It is distinguished from Af by its rainfall regime. The winter/summer reversal of airflow brings dry
and wet seasons to the Am climate.
Am vegetation: The forest becomes less dense with individual trees more widely spaced. Ground cover is
heavier because more light penetrates to the ground surface. The forest is semi-deciduous, i.e. some
trees drop their leaves during the dry season and some retain their leaves. The trees that retain
leaves have adaptations to dry weather that include: deep or extensive roots. small leaves thick
cuticles. Many of the trees found in the rainforest are also found in the semi-deciduous forest but
drop their leaves during the dry season. Somewhat pure stands of trees occur including: teak,
ebony, mahogony, cacao, rubber and banana.
c) Tropical Wet & Dry(Aw) Climate
North and south of the Af climate are areas where the ITCZ penetrates during the high sun period
bringing convectional precipitation. During the low sun period the trade winds dominate bringing a
distinct dry season.
Aw vegetation: Move poleward to tropical climates with less annual rainfall
and longer dry seasons, the vegetation shows xerophytic adaptations. Xerophytic adaptations
include low growing trees to reduce water loss from wind, thick bark, small leaves or thorns.
On the equator side of the Aw climate trees are present and this forest can be very luxurious during
the wet season but life less during the dry season. As trees become more and more scattered
because of the increasing dry period, grasses become dominant. This is Savanna vegetation and
is found in the drier Aw climates and well into the BS climate. The grasses have dense root
systems and can absorb moisture rapidly so very little rain makes it past the roots deep into the
soil. During the dry season the tops of the grasses die but the roots remain viable. The dead

grasses insulate the roots form cold and drought. Trees are found in the Savanna but are widely
separated because of lack of moisture and need for extensive root systems. Root systems are
oriented either vertically (very deep to tap deep soil moisture, typically 10 times height of tree), or
horizontally (close to surface to absorb maximum amount of rainfall, typically 5-7 times height of
tree). Deep-rooted trees have a shortened dormancy period because they can tap deep soil
moisture during dry season.
Examples: Tree/shrub species found on Savanna: Acacia, Eucalyptus.
Chaprral vegetation in North America
Desert Climates (BS, BW)
a) Semi-arid Hot Climate (BSh) or Low-latitude Steppe:
This climate is found surrounding the low-latitude deserts. You cannot distinguish between Bsh
and BWh climates by temperature only, but consider precipitation also. Although the precipitation
in the BSh climate is not very much, it is greater than the deserts. The typical steppe has 10"
precipitation per year and always less than 30". Seasonal distribution varies. BSh climates on the
equator side receive 80% of rainfall during the high-sun period when the ITCZ migrates to the
region. The steppes on the poleward side of the low-latitude deserts experience maximum
precipitation during the low-sun period. Precipitation is mainly from cyclonic fronts that
occasionally swing far south. The water balance shows a deficit throughout the year.
b) Low-Latitude Deserts (BWh)
These deserts lie approximately between 18-28 in both hemispheres. They coincide with the
equatorward edge of the subtropical high pressure belt and trade winds. Includes the world's
great deserts: Sahara, Sonoran, Thar, Kalahari, Great Australian.
Desert Vegetation: Deserts are regions where PEVT is much higher than annual precipitation.
The name desert was originally a term describing vegetation that was coined in North Africa.
Desert means "plants that are evenly spaced". Western civilization applies the term desert to both
vegetation and climate.
All deserts have some plant life. Even the driest deserts, which appear without plant life most of
the time, contain dormant seeds that come to life after rare showers. The rain showers may be
years apart.

Creosote and cacti in Southwestern America
In the world's deserts there are two major types of plant life:
 Species nourished directly be rain and may be dormant for long periods of time. Are
annuals and perannials.
 Other plants live in protected areas, e.g. valleys and depressions and seek water through
their extensive root systems.
Desert plants have to survive extreme dryness and drastic diurnal and annual temperature
ranges.
Example:
Location/Temp. Average max. temp. Average min. temp. Range
Lima, Peru 89F 51F 38F
Yuma, Ariz. 113 31 89
Reno, Nev. 98 -1 99
Kazalinsk,Russia 103 -21 124
Many desert plants are adapted to use dew for moisture and can take in water through leaves
and stem.
1) Adaptation of Xerophytic Plants:
 Have extensive root systems oriented either horizontally or vertically.
 Above ground plants have compact growth with leaves hugging the ground.
 Leaves have thick cuticles.
 Leaves are small or absent or have hairs that raise wind off surface.
2) Growth Forms of Desert Plants:
 Leafless Evergreen Shrub - e.g. Cactus, which is found in the Americas or Euphorbia
found in Africa. Have shallow, poorly developed root systems but can store a lot of water.
Leaves are absent but trunk is green and can photosynthesize.
 Deciduous Shrubs - major component of desert vegetation. They leaf out only when
sufficient water is present. Can leaf out more than once a year. Growth is very fast in wet
periods.
 Ephemerals - only present when enough water falls to ensure a complete growth cycle.
e.g. grasses annuals - have fragrent, colorful flowers to ensure pollenation. Seeds know
when to sprout because outer covering is abraded or chemical is washed off.

Mid-Latitude Climates ("C"- Cs/Cf/Cm)
These climates (C) are located in the belt of the prevailing westerlies. They are characterized by
seasonality in temperature. Have mild winters. Different "C" climates based on seasonality of
precipitation (f,w,s), and severity of winter (a,b,c). Precipitation regimes depend upon their
position relative to the subtropical high pressure belt and the polar front.
a) Dry Subtropical Climate (Csa) or Mediterranean:
The Mediterranean basin contains the largest area of this climate. This climate is found on the
west coasts of middle latitude continents in for example, California, Central Chili, South Africa,
Western/Central Australia.
Sclerophyll Forest: Largest area of development in Mediterranean Basin. Associated with Cfa
climate. The vegetation of this forest is dominated by an evergreen, leathery, drought-resistant
foliage. Heights range from 18 inches to 10 feet. The woody vegetation varies depending upon
the length of the dry season.
In the wettest areas of this climate tree species include cork, pine, oak and olive. These trees
provide an open canopy. In drier areas trees tend to disappear and shrubs form a dense covering
over the ground. In the drier areas the shrub cover is discontinuous and lower, reflecting the lack
of water.
b) Subtropical (Cfa) Climate
Found on the Southeastern side of continents primarily between 30-40. In the U.S. and China, polar air masses
bring cold "spells" in winter.
Mid-Latitude Deciduous Forest: This forest community is generally associated with the Cfa and
Dfa climates, i.e. continental climates with mild winters. This forest is found in eastern
U.S./southern Canada, NW Europe, southern tip South America, East Asia.
Approximately 5000 different species of plants here compared with 50,000 in Tropical Rainforest..
There are 2-3 layers of vegetation present:
 canopy layer (100')
 understory of bushes not well developed,
 thick ground cover in early spring when trees have not leafed out yet.
Leaves of Decidous brust(Cfa & Dfa)
The Mid-latitude Deciduous Forest has great extent both latitudinally and longitudinally. This
forest is not homogeneous but has dominent species in different areas because of the wide range
of temperature and precipitation that is experienced in this forest. The center of the Eastern
Deciduous Forest is located in the Smokies and Cumberland mountains. There are as many as
25 different dominant species in the Eastern Deciduous Forest, all dominent in different areas.
c) Marine West Coast (Cfb) Climate
This climate lies poleward of the dry subtropical climates on the western sides of continents and
can extend quite a distance. The prevailing westerlies constantly bring in moisture from the
oceans and if a warm ocean current is present off-shore the climate is even more moist and mild.
The degree to which this climate extends inland depends on the presence or absence of

mountain barriers. Locations:
 The west coast of U.S. from N. California to the panhandle of Alaska.
 Southern Chile (narrow band because of mountains).
 NW Europe - extends far inland because of lack of North-South trending mountains.
This climate (Cfb) is very mild because of the modifying effects of the ocean. This climate does
not have large seasonal extremes of temperature, summers are cool and winters are mild.
Average summer temps are 60-65F. Average winter temps are 30-45F. Freezing temperatures
are more frequent and more severe then in the Humid Subtropics but the growing season is still
quite long (6-8 months) considering the latitude.
Rainfall is adequate throughout the year, the water budget always shows a surplus. Places such
as Europe get 25-30 inches per year. Evaporation rates are low so rainfall is very effective. In
areas with mountain barriers precipitation can be high (40-100"/year) on the windward side.
Moist, Severe Winter (D) Cimates
These climates are found poleward of the "C" climates. The "D" climates have longer, colder
winters and greater annual range of temperature as compared with "C" climates. The boundary
between C/D climates is where the coldest month averages below 32F.
Boreal Forest (assoc. with Cfa, Cfb, Dfa, Dfb) / Tiaga: the Boreal Forest occurs under a number
of climatic regimes. The Boreal Forest is associated with climates having cool summers and cold
winters. The trees are evergreen and are conifers. They have special adaptations to the severe
climate. The air is dry here so plants need adaptations for temperature and precipitation
fluctuations. Small leaves have thick cuticles. Trees are conical shaped to allow snow to fall off
branches. The canopy is closed and is low to the ground. There is little ground cover. There are
few species of trees in the Tiaga but you find extensive pure stands. Representative species
include spruce, larch (tamarack), fir birch, pine.
 Humid continental (Dfa): land of tall parire grasses
 Humid continental(Dfb): More firs, pines and root plant(potatoes), apples, cherries etc.
with shorter growing seasons
 Subarctic(Dwd, dfd, dwc, dfw):No agriculture, with open land area normally “taiga
forest”
Tagia forest
Polar (E) Climates
a) Tundra (ET) Climate
This climate lacks a summer. Its southern boundary is the northern limit of the forest. This
boundary occurs approximately with the July 50F isotherm which means the warmest month, in
the Tundra, averages 50F. The dividing line between the ET and EF climate is 32F for warmest
month. The ET climate has long, cold winters and short summers similar to Alabama in January.
Only 2-4 months have average temperatures above freezing.
Tundra Vegetation:The transition from Boreal Forest to treeless Tundra is very gradual with tree
species thinning out and becoming dwarfed. Although the tundra receives little precipitation
(some call it a frozen desert) it remains as snow and insulates the ground in winter. The tundra is

underlain by permafrost which produces poor drainage in summer.
A Flow Chart:
High lands(H): It is not necessary to visit polar regions to experience. Because tepmperature de reases with
latitude. Climatic change experincewithin 300m in elevatin is equal to horizontal distance of 300km northward for
these changes. Therefore, climbing a mountain makes able to experience different climatic zones within shorter
period of time.
Climate and
Vegetation
Tropical (A)
Af
Am
Aw
Desert (B)
Bsh
Bwh
Warm and
moist (C)
Cfa
Cba
Csa
Cool and
moist (D)
Polar(E)

Koppen Climate Classification Chart in a Short Summary:
A Tropical humid Af Tropical wet No dry season
Am
Tropical
monsoonal
Short dry season; heavy monsoonal rains in other months
Aw
Tropical
savanna
Winter dry season
B Dry BWh
Subtropical
desert
Low-latitude desert
BSh
Subtropical
steppe
Low-latitude dry
BWk
Mid-latitude
desert
Mid-latitude desert
BSk
Mid-
latitude steppe
Mid-latitude dry
CMild Mid-Latitude Csa Mediterranean Mild with dry, hot summer
Csb Mediterranean Mild with dry, warm summer
Cfa
Humid
subtropical
Mild with no dry season, hot summer
Cwa
Humid
Mild with dry winter, hot summer

subtropical
Cfb
Marine west
coast
Mild with no dry season, warm summer
Cfc
Marine west
coast
Mild with no dry season, cool summer
DSevere Mid-Latitude Dfa
Humid
continental
Humid with severe winter, no dry season, hot summer
Dfb
Humid
continental
Humid with severe winter, no dry season, warm summer
Dwa
Humid
continental
Humid with severe, dry winter, hot summer
Dwb
Humid
continental
Humid with severe, dry winter, warm summer
Dfc Subarctic Severe winter, no dry season, cool summer
Dfd Subarctic Severe, very cold winter, no dry season, cool summer
Dwc Subarctic Severe, dry winter, cool summer
Dwd Subarctic Severe, very cold and dry winter, cool summer
EPolar ET Tundra Polar tundra, no true summer

EF Ice Cap Perennial ice
HHighland

1. www.about.com (28-10-11)
2. www.blueplanetbiomes.com (11-11-11)
3. Climatology by Robert V. Rohli and Anthony J. Vega
4. www.elmhurst.edu (28-10-11)
5. www.foa.org (11-11-11)
6. www.gpcc.dwd.de (28-10-11)
7. www.meterologyclimate.com (28-10-11)
8. Meterology Today by C. Donald Ahrens. 9th
Edtion.
9. www.mjksciteachhinngs.ideas.com (28-10-11)
10. www.nationalgeographic.com (28-10-11)
11. www.srh.noaa.gov. (11-11-11)

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