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WESTERN TRANSLATION
     THEORY
Central Concept : Equivalence
    the central concepts is ‘equivalence’ (such
    as correspondence, similarity, analogy, or
    even the sameness). The term roughly
    corresponds to the ‘faithfulness’ of a TT to
    its original or ST and it has dominated this
    discipline for many years.
   Seeking to render word for word and form
    for form from a linguistic level, many
    scholars from the branch of linguistics,
    either as applied, or as comparative or
    contrastive linguistics.
Unit/level of equivalence
            between ST and TT
   linguistic scholars develop their
    approaches to translation from the basic
                    unit (morphemes, words,
    linguistic level/
    phrases, clauses, or sentences) and the
    basic ‘equivalence’ at the linguistic level
    between the ST and the TT.
    In other words, from the very beginning of
    translation theory, the concept of
    equivalence has focused on the word or
    form as the ‘unit of translation’ and ‘unit
    shifts’ were the many scholars’
    preoccupation from the 1950s onward.
The concept of Equivalence

   The term ‘equivalence’ is so central in
    the areas of translating and
    translation that it is used to define
    translation itself in terms of
    equivalence relations by some
    scholars (Catford 1965:20; Koller
    1995:196; Nida 1959:19/1975:33;
    Nida and Taber 1969:12; Pym
    1992:37; Wilss 1982:62; Toury
Catford’s : textual equivalent and
         formal correspondent
   A textual equivalent is any TL text or
    portion of text which is observed on a
    particular occasion … to be the equivalent
    of a given SL text or portion of text.
   A formal correspondent is any TL
    category (unit, class, element of structure,
    etc.) which can be said to occupy, as
    nearly as possible, the ‘same’ place in the
    ‘economy’ of the TL as the given SL
    category occupies in the SL.
Nida’s The Concept of Dynamic
Equivalence
   Nida, with the reference to Bible translation,
    advocated a translator has to “seek to find
    the closest possible equivalent”
    Nida proposed two basic types of
    equivalence in translating: formal
    equivalence and dynamic equivalence.
    Formal equivalence focuses on the message
    itself in both form and content and on such
    concerns as the correspondence on the
    levels of: word to word, sentence to
Functional Equivalence
   By the end of the 1970s, the concept of
    ‘functional equivalence’ was proposed by
    functionalists and scholars working from the text-
    linguistic standpoint. The new ‘text-linguistics’
    models started emerging with many proponents of
    this new approach.
   They viewed translation as “an act of
    communication”, not as a process of trans-coding
    in linguistic approaches
   House (1997:49, 2001:989) further claimed that a
    translated text “should not only match its ST in
    function, but employ equivalent situational-
    dimensional (eg social role relationship, time,
    geographical origin and so on) means to achieve
Newmark’s Communication
Theory
   Semantic translation refers to cases when a
    translator attempts to render the ST “within the
    bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the
    TL, to reproduce the precise contextual
    meaning of the author”. Literal translation as
    one strategy for this.
    Communicative translation covers cases
    whereby “a translator attempts to produce the
    same effect on the TL readers as was
    produced by the original on the SL readers”.
    Free translation as one strategy for this.
Skopos theory
   Skopos is the Greek word for aim, finality,
    objectives, and/or intention” and was
    introduced by German’s scholars (i.e. Reiss,
    Vermeer, and Nord) in translation to refer to
    the aim or purpose of a translation.
   A further development of the skopos model
    came with the addition of the notion of
    ‘loyalty’, which helped redefine the classical
    binary mode of translation – —literal vs. free
    translation.
literal translation vs Free
translation
   Along with the criticism of Newmark’s
    communicative translation, which is linked to
    the notion of cultural adaptation, the
    awareness of cultural elements in context was
    gradually developed and taken into a
    consideration by some proponents ofin
    functional theory such as Reiss.
   A further development of the skopos model
    came with the addition of the notion of ‘loyalty’,
    which helped redefine the classical binary
    mode of translation – —literal vs. free (Nord
prescriptive v.s descriptive
translation
   Theorists and scholars from the discipline
    of comparative literature and literary
    translation started conducting translation
    research by moving away from
    prescriptive studies and toward
    descriptive translation studies.
   Scholars argued that these problem- and
    process-oriented prescriptive theories can
    be treated as reference concepts for
    translation strategies
Descriptive Translation
    Studies
   The translated texts are used:
     (i) to describe the phenomena of transiting and
    translation;
     (ii) to establish general principles by means of which
    these
           phenomena can be explained and predicted.
   DTS do not aim to prescribe what a translation
    should or ought to be. Alternatively, they observe
    how translations have been carried out in
    practice, and, consequently, concepts of
    ‘equivalence’ or ‘faithfulness’ would be not
PTS--equivalence vs. DTS--
norms
 Therefore, these constraints or so-called
  ‘norms’ may have influenced the translation
  strategies or methods and the ensuing
  translations themselves.
 DTS could be characterised as a target-

  oriented, functional, historical, and cultural
  approach to translation. Also, replacing the
  concept of ‘equivalence’ with the concept of
  ‘norms’,
 DTS has attracted the attention of
Translation Norms
   Translations made at different times therefore
    tend to be made under different conditions
    and to turn out differently, not because they
    are good or bad, but because they have been
    produced to satisfy different demands. It
    cannot be stressed enough that the production
    of different translations at different times does
    not appoint to any ‘betrayal’ of absolute
    standards.
   Thus, the translation norms might be
    differences in different times, societies,
Norms, Conventions, Rules
   With regard to norms of language this means
    that they are conventions in the sense as far
    as their origin is concerned, but for every new
    generation, and every newcomer, they are
    norms.
   As a convention with non-normative character
    could be regarded as a norm, but a convention
    can gradually become a norm, particularly for
    a ‘new generation’ or ‘newcomer’; as a result,
    a convention can grow into a norm
Polysystem
   The whole polysystem, including social,
    historical, cultural, temporal, and even political
    elements, is taken into consideration and the
    activity of studying translation gives a
    relatively empirical account of human
    behaviour. In other words, this theory work
    does help translation studies “break down
    certain conceptual barriers and find a method
    for better describing translation”, as approved
    by Gentzler (2001:135).
Discussion
 Prescriptive translation studies
  Descriptive translation studies
 Translation theories: The combination

  of Chinese and West
 Preference: Chinese or Western

  theories

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Western translation theory_--oct_1

  • 2. Central Concept : Equivalence  the central concepts is ‘equivalence’ (such as correspondence, similarity, analogy, or even the sameness). The term roughly corresponds to the ‘faithfulness’ of a TT to its original or ST and it has dominated this discipline for many years.  Seeking to render word for word and form for form from a linguistic level, many scholars from the branch of linguistics, either as applied, or as comparative or contrastive linguistics.
  • 3. Unit/level of equivalence between ST and TT  linguistic scholars develop their approaches to translation from the basic unit (morphemes, words, linguistic level/ phrases, clauses, or sentences) and the basic ‘equivalence’ at the linguistic level between the ST and the TT.  In other words, from the very beginning of translation theory, the concept of equivalence has focused on the word or form as the ‘unit of translation’ and ‘unit shifts’ were the many scholars’ preoccupation from the 1950s onward.
  • 4. The concept of Equivalence  The term ‘equivalence’ is so central in the areas of translating and translation that it is used to define translation itself in terms of equivalence relations by some scholars (Catford 1965:20; Koller 1995:196; Nida 1959:19/1975:33; Nida and Taber 1969:12; Pym 1992:37; Wilss 1982:62; Toury
  • 5. Catford’s : textual equivalent and formal correspondent  A textual equivalent is any TL text or portion of text which is observed on a particular occasion … to be the equivalent of a given SL text or portion of text.  A formal correspondent is any TL category (unit, class, element of structure, etc.) which can be said to occupy, as nearly as possible, the ‘same’ place in the ‘economy’ of the TL as the given SL category occupies in the SL.
  • 6. Nida’s The Concept of Dynamic Equivalence  Nida, with the reference to Bible translation, advocated a translator has to “seek to find the closest possible equivalent”  Nida proposed two basic types of equivalence in translating: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Formal equivalence focuses on the message itself in both form and content and on such concerns as the correspondence on the levels of: word to word, sentence to
  • 7. Functional Equivalence  By the end of the 1970s, the concept of ‘functional equivalence’ was proposed by functionalists and scholars working from the text- linguistic standpoint. The new ‘text-linguistics’ models started emerging with many proponents of this new approach.  They viewed translation as “an act of communication”, not as a process of trans-coding in linguistic approaches  House (1997:49, 2001:989) further claimed that a translated text “should not only match its ST in function, but employ equivalent situational- dimensional (eg social role relationship, time, geographical origin and so on) means to achieve
  • 8. Newmark’s Communication Theory  Semantic translation refers to cases when a translator attempts to render the ST “within the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the TL, to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author”. Literal translation as one strategy for this.  Communicative translation covers cases whereby “a translator attempts to produce the same effect on the TL readers as was produced by the original on the SL readers”. Free translation as one strategy for this.
  • 9. Skopos theory  Skopos is the Greek word for aim, finality, objectives, and/or intention” and was introduced by German’s scholars (i.e. Reiss, Vermeer, and Nord) in translation to refer to the aim or purpose of a translation.  A further development of the skopos model came with the addition of the notion of ‘loyalty’, which helped redefine the classical binary mode of translation – —literal vs. free translation.
  • 10. literal translation vs Free translation  Along with the criticism of Newmark’s communicative translation, which is linked to the notion of cultural adaptation, the awareness of cultural elements in context was gradually developed and taken into a consideration by some proponents ofin functional theory such as Reiss.  A further development of the skopos model came with the addition of the notion of ‘loyalty’, which helped redefine the classical binary mode of translation – —literal vs. free (Nord
  • 11. prescriptive v.s descriptive translation  Theorists and scholars from the discipline of comparative literature and literary translation started conducting translation research by moving away from prescriptive studies and toward descriptive translation studies.  Scholars argued that these problem- and process-oriented prescriptive theories can be treated as reference concepts for translation strategies
  • 12. Descriptive Translation Studies  The translated texts are used: (i) to describe the phenomena of transiting and translation; (ii) to establish general principles by means of which these phenomena can be explained and predicted.  DTS do not aim to prescribe what a translation should or ought to be. Alternatively, they observe how translations have been carried out in practice, and, consequently, concepts of ‘equivalence’ or ‘faithfulness’ would be not
  • 13. PTS--equivalence vs. DTS-- norms  Therefore, these constraints or so-called ‘norms’ may have influenced the translation strategies or methods and the ensuing translations themselves.  DTS could be characterised as a target- oriented, functional, historical, and cultural approach to translation. Also, replacing the concept of ‘equivalence’ with the concept of ‘norms’,  DTS has attracted the attention of
  • 14. Translation Norms  Translations made at different times therefore tend to be made under different conditions and to turn out differently, not because they are good or bad, but because they have been produced to satisfy different demands. It cannot be stressed enough that the production of different translations at different times does not appoint to any ‘betrayal’ of absolute standards.  Thus, the translation norms might be differences in different times, societies,
  • 15. Norms, Conventions, Rules  With regard to norms of language this means that they are conventions in the sense as far as their origin is concerned, but for every new generation, and every newcomer, they are norms.  As a convention with non-normative character could be regarded as a norm, but a convention can gradually become a norm, particularly for a ‘new generation’ or ‘newcomer’; as a result, a convention can grow into a norm
  • 16. Polysystem  The whole polysystem, including social, historical, cultural, temporal, and even political elements, is taken into consideration and the activity of studying translation gives a relatively empirical account of human behaviour. In other words, this theory work does help translation studies “break down certain conceptual barriers and find a method for better describing translation”, as approved by Gentzler (2001:135).
  • 17. Discussion  Prescriptive translation studies Descriptive translation studies  Translation theories: The combination of Chinese and West  Preference: Chinese or Western theories