4. ARCHITECTURE & ORGANIZATION
• Two jargons that are often confusing
• Computer organization: refers to the
operational units and their interconnections that realize
the architectural specifications (!)
• Control signals, Interface, Memory technology.
• Computer Architecture refers to those
attributes of a system visible to a programmer, or put
another way, those attributes that have a direct impact
on the logical execution of a program (!)
• Instruction set, no. of bits used for data representation,
I/O mechanisms
5. 1. 1. INTRODUCTION - CONTINUED
• Architecture concerns more about the basic instruction
design, that may lead to better performance of the system
• Organization, is the implementation of computer system, in
terms of its interconnection of functional units : CPU, memory,
bus and I/O devices.
• Example : IBM/S-370 family architecture. There are plenty of
IBM products having the same architecture (S-370) but
different organization, depending on its price/performance
measures. Cost and performance differs the organizations
• So, organization of a computer is the implementation of its
architecture, but tailored to fit the intended price and
performance measures.
6. STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
• Structure is the way in which component
relate to each other
• Function is the operation of individual
components as part of the structure
7. 1. 2. INTRODUCTION - STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
• Computer system may be seen from different angles. One
may see it from the structures, or the others may look it from
its functions.
• From the structure point of view, we may see a system as an
interrelated components, while from its function we may
learn the operational details of each components.
• It is up to us to see, we may start from the bottom up (learn
the operational details of each component) and then we study
how are they interrelated; or the other way around or top
down approach.
• The book we are using, use the top-down approach.
8. 1. 2. INTRODUCTION - STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
• Function of a computer :
Data processing
Data storage
Data Movement
Control
• Primary Function is data processing
• Second most important function is data storage
• Another important function is “control”
• And sometimes it can function to move data (transfer)
10. 1.2. INTRODUCTION - STRUCTURE OF
COMPUTER
• Four main structure are :
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Main Memory : Stores data temporarily
I/O (Input Output) : Moves Data between computer and
external environment
System Interconnection : Provides communication
among CPU, Memory and I/O
• CPU consists of :
Control Unit, ALU (x,:,+,-), Registers (internal
Storage), CPU bus/interconnections
11. 1.3. INTRODUCTION - OUTLINE OF THE BOOK
• Computer Evolution and Performance
• Computer Interconnection Structures
• Cache Memory
• Internal Memory
• External Memory
• Input/Output
• Instruction Sets
• CPU structure & Functions
• Pipelined, RISC
• Superscalar, Parallel Processor
• etc.
13. BRIEF HISTORY
• From ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
John Mauchly and John P Eckert, University of Pennsylvania
(1943 - 1946)
• For war purposes
• Weighted 30 tons, consumes 140 kwatts of electric power,
15.000 square feet of space, only 5000 addition per second
• Not a digital computer, it was a decimal computer (analog)
• John von Neuman proposed : EDVAC (Electronic Discrete
Variable Computer) - first stored program computer -1945
16. 2. 1.EVOLUTION AND PERFORMANCE -
HISTORY
• 1946 Von Neuman and his gang proposed IAS (Institute for
Advanced Studies)
• The design included :
• main memory
• ALU
• Control Unit
• I/O
• First Stored Program, able to perform :
+, -, x, :
• The “father” of all modern computer/processor
20. 2. 1. EVOLUTION AND PERFORMANCE -
HISTORY
IAS components are :
• MBR (memory buffer register), MAR (memory address
register), IR (instruction register), IBR (instruction buffer
register), PC (program counter), AC (accumulator and MQ
(multiplier quotient), memory (1000 locations)
• 20 bit instruction : 8 bit opcode, 12 bit address (addressing one
of 1000 memory locations - 0 to 999)
• 39 bit data (with sign bit - 1 bit)
• Operations : data transfer between registers and ALU,
unconditional branch, conditional branch, arithmetic, address
modify
21. HISTORY OF COMMERCIAL
COMPUTERS
• First Generation : 1950 Mauchly & Eckert developed UNIVAC I,
used by Census Beureau
• Then appeared UNIVAC II, and later grew to UNIVAC 1100 series
(1103, 1104,1105,1106,1108) - vacuum tubes and later transistor
• Second Generation : Transistors, IBM 7094 (although there are
NCR, RCA and others tried to develop their versions -
commercially not successful)
• Third Generation : Integrated Circuit (IC) - SSI. IBM S/360 was the
successful example
• Later generations (possibly fourth and fifth) : LSI and VLSI
technology
23. EVOLUTION - SYSTEM 360 FAMILY
Model Model Model Model Model
Characteristic 30 40 50 65 75
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Max memory size (Bytes) 64K 256K 256K 512K 512K
Memory data-rate(MB/s) 0.5 0.8 2.0 8.0 16.0
Processor cycle time ( s) 1.0 0.625 0.5 0.25 0.2
Relative Speed 1 3.5 10 21 50
Max Number data channel 3 3 4 6 6
Max chan. data-rate(KB/s) 250 400 800 1250 1250
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• Family architecture menyebabkan adanya istilah : upward dan downward
compatible
24. EVOLUTION - LATER GENERATIONS
• Semiconductor memories : 1K,4K,16K,64K,256K,1M,4M,16
Mbits on a single chip
• Microprocessors appeared :
Intel 4004 (1971), Intel 8008 (72), Intel 8080 (8 bit-74), 8086
(16bit-81), 80386 (32bit-85) onward.
• At almost the same time : Motorola, 6800(8bit), 68000 (16bit),
68010(16bit), 68020 (32bit), 68030/40 (32bit)
• Then Motorola’s product disappeared commercially
• Intel products dominated the market, since the appearance of
IBM PC
25. EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSORS
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Feature 8008 8080 8086 80386 80486
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Year introduced 1972 1974 1978 1985 1989
# of instructions 66 111 133 154 235
Address bus width 8 16 20 32 32
Data bus width 8 8 16 32 32
# of registers 8 8 16 8 8
Memory addressability 16KB 64KB 1 MB 4 GB 4 GB
Bus Bandwidth (MB/s) - 0.75 5 32 32
Reg-Reg add time ( s) - 1.3 0.3 0.125 0.06
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
26. 8086 (1978)
• 20-bit address bus : 1M byte(1024Kbytes) memory
• instruction : over 20,000 variation
• 4004 : 45, 8085 : 246
• A separate BIU and EU
• Fetch and Execute instruction simultaneously
• 16-bit Internal processor registers
• with the ability to access the high and low 8 bits separately if
desired
• hardware multiply and divide built in
• support for an external math coprocessor
• perform floating-point math operations as much as 100 times
faster than the processor alone via software emulation
27.
28.
29. 8088
• 8086(1978) : 16-bit data bus
• requirement of two separate 8-bit memory banks to
supply its 16-bit data bus
• quite expensive memory chip at the time
• 8088(1979) : external 8-bit data bus
• IBM announced the PC : 1981.8
• 8088, 16K memory(expandable 64K), 4.77MHz(clock speed)
• PC standard
30. 80186/80188
• High-Integration CPUs
• schematic diagram for IBM’s original PC
• 8088 microprocessor
• several additional chips are required
• 80186 = 8086 + several additional chips
• added 9 new instructions
• clock generator
• programmable timer
• programmable interrupt controller
• circuitry to select the I/O devices
31.
32. 80286 (1982)
• some instruction executed : 250ns(4.0MIPS) at 8MHz
• 24-bit address bus : 16M byte memory
• added 16 new instructions
• Real Mode: 1st powered on
• functions exactly like an 8086
• uses only its 20 least significant address lines(1M)
• Protected :
• A “Fatal Flaw” ?
• once switched to Protected mode, should not be able to switch
back to Real mode
• 286 chips are operated in Real mode and thus function only as
fast 8086s
• IBM AT(advanced technology) Computer :1984
33.
34. 80386
• flexible 32-bit Microprocessor(1986) : data bus, registers
• very large address space : 32-bit address bus(4G byte physical)
• 64 terabyte virtual
• 4G maximum segment size
• integrated memory management unit
• virtual memory support, optional on-chip paging
• 4 levels of protection
• added 16 new instructions
• Real Mode, Protected mode
• Virtual 8086 mode : in a protected and paged system
• 386SX : 16-bit external data bus, 24-bit address bus
• 386EX : 16-bit external data bus, 26-bit address bus
• 1995, called embedded PC
35.
36. 80486
• Intel released 80486 in 1989
• maintaining compatibility : standard(8086,286,386)
• polished & refined 386 : twice as fast as 386
• redesigned using RISC concept :
• frequently used instruction : a single clock cycle
• new 5-stage execution pipeline
• highly integrated
• 8K memory cache
• floating-point processor(equivalent of the external 387)
• added 6 new instructions : for used by OS
37.
38. 80486
• 486SX :
• for low-end applications that do not require a coprocessor or
internal cache
• clock speed limited 33MHz
• 486DX2 & DX4 :
• internal clock rate is twice or 3 times external clock rate
• 486DX4 100 : internal 100MHz, external 33MHz
• Overdrive Processor:
• 486DX2 or DX4 chips with overdrive socket pin-outs
• to upgrade low-speed 486DX, SX with 486DX2, DX4
39. PENTIUM
• increasing the complexity of the IC: to scale the chip down
• if every line could be shrunk in half, same circuit could be built in
one-forth the area
• Superscaler : support 2 instruction pipelines(5 stage)
• ALU, address generation circuit, data cache interface
• actually execute two different instruction simultaneously
• Pentium(1993) : originally labeled P5(80586)
• 60, 66MHz(110MIPS)
• 8K code cache, 8K data cache
• coprocessor : redesign(8-stage instruction pipeline )
• external data bus : 64 bit(higher data transfer rates )
• added 6 new instructions : for used by OS
40.
41.
42.
43. PENTIUM PRO
• codenamed P6 : 1995
• basic clock frequency : 150, 166MHz
• two chips in one : two separate silicon die
• processor(large chip), 256K level two cache
• Superscaler processor of degree three(12 stage)
• internal cache :
• level one(L1) : 8K instruction and data cache
• level two(L2) : 256K(or 512K)
• 36-bit address bus : 64G byte memory
• has been optimized to efficiently execute 32-bit code
• bundled with Windows NT : server market
44. PENTIUMⅡAND PENTIUMⅡXEON
MICROPROCESSOR
• PentiumⅡmicroprocessor released in 1997
• PentiumⅡ module : small circuit board
• Pentium pro with MMX : no internal L2 cache
• 512K L2 cache(operated at speed of 133MHz)
• main reason :
• L2 cache found main board of Pentium : 60, 66MHz
• not fast enough to justify a new microprocessor
• Pentium pro : not well yield
• 266~333MHz with 100MHz bus speed : in 1998
• bottleneck : external bus speed 66MHz
• use of 8ns SDRAM :
45. PENTIUMⅡAND PENTIUMⅡXEON
MICROPROCESSOR
• new version of PentiumⅡcalled Xeon : mid-1998
• for high-end workstation and server applications
• main difference from PentiumⅡ :
• L1 cache size : 32K bytes
• L2 cache size : 512K, 1M, 2M
• change in Intel’s strategy :
• professional version and home/business version of
PentiumⅡ microprocessor
46. PENTIUM Ⅲ MICROPROCESSOR
• 1. used faster core than PentiumⅡ
• is still P6 or Pentium pro processor
• 2. Two version :
• bus speed : 100MHz
• 1. slot 1 version mounted on a plastic cartridge
• 512K cache : one-half the clock speed
• 2. socket 370 version called flip-chip : looks like the older
Pentium package → Intel claim cost less
• 256K cache : clock speed
• 3. clock frequency : 1 GHz
47. PENTIUM 4 MICROPROCESSOR
• release in late 2000 : used Intel P6 architecture
• main difference :
• 1. clock speed : 1.3, 1.4, 1.5 GHz
• 2. support to use RAMBUS memory technology
• DDR(double-data-rate) SDRAM : both edge
• 3. interconnection : from aluminum to copper
• copper : is better conductor → increase clock frequency
• bus speed : from current max. of 133MHz to 200MHz or
higher
48. THE FUTURE OF MICROPROCESSORS
• no one can really make accurate prediction :
• success of Intel family should continue for quite a few years
• what may occur is : will occur
• a change to RISC technology,
• but more likely a change to a new technology being developed
jointly by Intel and Hewlett-Packard
• new technology :
• even will embody CISC instruction set of 80X86 family ,
• so that software for system will survive
• basic premise behind this technology : many
• will communicate directly with each other, allowing parallel
processing without any change to instruction set or program
