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Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.)
1. Coning In Horizontal Wells
2. Horizontal Well Breakthrough Time
1. Introduction
2. Classification Of Aquifers
3. Recognition Of Natural Water Influx
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aquifers
Nearly all hydrocarbon reservoirs are surrounded
by water-bearing rocks called aquifers.
These aquifers
may be substantially larger than the oil or gas reservoirs
they adjoin
as to appear infinite in size, or
they may be so small in size
as to be negligible
in their effect on reservoir performance.
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 5
water encroachment
As reservoir fluids are produced and
reservoir pressure declines,
a pressure differential develops
from the surrounding aquifer into the reservoir.
Following the basic law of fluid flow in porous
media, the aquifer reacts by encroaching across the
original hydrocarbon-water contact.
In some cases, water encroachment occurs due to
hydrodynamic conditions and recharge of the
formation by surface waters at an outcrop.
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 6
Ignorance of water encroachment
In many cases,
the pore volume of the aquifer is not significantly larger
than the pore volume of the reservoir itself.
Thus, the expansion of the water in the aquifer is negligible
relative to the overall energy system, and the reservoir
behaves volumetrically.
In this case, the effects of water influx can be ignored.
In other cases,
the aquifer permeability may be sufficiently low such
that a very large pressure differential is required before
an appreciable amount of water can encroach into the
reservoir.
In this instance,
the effects of water influx can be ignored as well.
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 7
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water drive mechanism
Many gas and oil reservoirs are produced by a
mechanism termed water drive.
Often this is called natural water drive to
distinguish it from artificial water drive that involves
the injection of water into the formation.
Hydrocarbon production from the reservoir and
the subsequent pressure drop
prompt a response from the aquifer
to offset the pressure decline.
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 9
Aquifer response to pressure decline
This response comes in a form of water influx,
commonly called water encroachment,
which is attributed to:
Expansion of the water in the aquifer
Compressibility of the aquifer rock
Artesian flow
where the water-bearing formation outcrop
is located structurally higher than the pay zone
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 10
Basis of reservoir-aquifer classification
Reservoir-aquifer systems are commonly classified
on the basis of:
Degree of pressure maintenance
Active water drive
Partial water drive
Limited water drive
Flow regimes
Outer boundary conditions
Flow geometries
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 11
active water drive
The term active water drive refers
to the water encroachment mechanism
in which the rate of water influx equals
the reservoir total production rate.
Active water-drive reservoirs are typically characterized
by a gradual and slow reservoir pressure decline.
If, during any long period, the production rate
and reservoir pressure remain reasonably constant,
the reservoir voidage rate must be equal
to the water influx rate.
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 12
water influx rate
ew = water influx rate, bbl/day
Qo = oil flow rate, STB/day
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Qg = free gas flow rate, scf/day
Bg = gas formation volume factor, bbl/scf
Qw = water flow rate, STB/day
Bw = water formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 13
cumulative water influx
Water influx rate can be equivalently expressed in terms of
cumulative production by introducing the following
derivative terms:
We = cumulative water influx, bbl
t = time, days
Np = cumulative oil production, STB
GOR = current gas-oil ratio, scf/STB
Rs = current gas solubility, scf/STB
Bg = gas formation volume factor, bbl/scf
Wp = cumulative water production, STB
dNp/dt = daily oil flow rate Qo, STB/day
dWp/dt = daily water flow rate Qw, STB/day
dWe/dt = daily water influx rate ew, bbl/day
(GOR − Rs)dNp/dt = daily free gas flow rate, scf/day
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 14
Outer Boundary Conditions
The aquifer can be classified as
infinite or
finite (bounded).
Geologically all formations are finite,
but may act as infinite
if the changes in the pressure at the oil-water contact
are not “felt” at the aquifer boundary.
Some aquifers outcrop and are infinite acting because of
surface replenishment.
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 15
Outer Boundary Conditions (Cont.)
In general, the outer boundary governs the
behavior of the aquifer and, therefore:
Infinite system indicates that
the effect of the pressure changes at the oil/aquifer
boundary can never be felt at the outer boundary.
This boundary is for all intents and purposes at a
constant pressure equal to initial reservoir pressure.
Finite system indicates that
the aquifer outer limit is affected by
the influx into the oil zone and that
the pressure at this outer limit changes with time.
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 16
Flow Regimes
There are basically three flow regimes that
influence the rate of water influx into the reservoir.
those flow regimes are:
Steady-state
Semisteady (pseudosteady)-state
Unsteady-state
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 17
Flow Geometries
Reservoir-aquifer systems can be classified on the basis
of flow geometry as:
Edge-water drive
water moves into the flanks of the reservoir as a result of
hydrocarbon production and pressure drop at the reservoir-aquifer
boundary.
The flow is essentially radial with negligible flow in the vertical
direction.
Bottom-water drive
occurs in reservoirs with large areal extent and gentle dip where
the reservoir-water contact completely underlies the reservoir.
The flow is essentially radial and, in contrast to the edge-water
drive, the bottom-water drive has significant vertical flow.
Linear-water drive
In linear-water drive, the influx is from one flank of the reservoir.
The flow is strictly linear with a constant cross-sectional area.
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 18
Flow geometries schmatics
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 19
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Natural water drive clue
Normally very little information is obtained during
the exploration-development period of a reservoir
concerning the presence or characteristics of
an aquifer that could provide a source of
water influx during the depletion period.
Natural water drive may be assumed
by analogy with nearby producing reservoirs,
but early reservoir performance trends
can provide clues.
A comparatively low, and decreasing,
rate of reservoir pressure decline with
increasing cumulative withdrawals is indicative of fluid influx.
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 22
Indication of fluid influx
Successive calculations of barrels withdrawn per psi
change in reservoir pressure can supplement
performance graphs.
If the reservoir limits have not been delineated by
developed dry holes, however, the influx could be
from an undeveloped area of the reservoir not
accounted for in averaging reservoir pressure.
If the reservoir pressure
is below the oil saturation pressure (Pr<Pb),
a low rate of increase in produced gas-oil ratio
is also indicative of fluid influx.
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 23
water encroachment indications
Early water production from edge wells
is indicative of water encroachment.
Such observations must be tempered by the possibility
that the early water production is due to
formation fractures;
thin, high permeability streaks;
or to coning in connection with a limited aquifer.
The water production may be due to casing leaks.
Calculation of increasing original oil in place
from successive reservoir pressure surveys
by using the material balance
assuming no water influx
is also indicative of fluid influx.
Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 24
1. Ahmed, T. (2010). Reservoir engineering
handbook (Gulf Professional Publishing).
Chapter 10
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Q922+re2+l05 v1

  • 1. Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.)
  • 2. 1. Coning In Horizontal Wells 2. Horizontal Well Breakthrough Time
  • 3. 1. Introduction 2. Classification Of Aquifers 3. Recognition Of Natural Water Influx
  • 5. aquifers Nearly all hydrocarbon reservoirs are surrounded by water-bearing rocks called aquifers. These aquifers may be substantially larger than the oil or gas reservoirs they adjoin as to appear infinite in size, or they may be so small in size as to be negligible in their effect on reservoir performance. Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 5
  • 6. water encroachment As reservoir fluids are produced and reservoir pressure declines, a pressure differential develops from the surrounding aquifer into the reservoir. Following the basic law of fluid flow in porous media, the aquifer reacts by encroaching across the original hydrocarbon-water contact. In some cases, water encroachment occurs due to hydrodynamic conditions and recharge of the formation by surface waters at an outcrop. Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 6
  • 7. Ignorance of water encroachment In many cases, the pore volume of the aquifer is not significantly larger than the pore volume of the reservoir itself. Thus, the expansion of the water in the aquifer is negligible relative to the overall energy system, and the reservoir behaves volumetrically. In this case, the effects of water influx can be ignored. In other cases, the aquifer permeability may be sufficiently low such that a very large pressure differential is required before an appreciable amount of water can encroach into the reservoir. In this instance, the effects of water influx can be ignored as well. Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 7
  • 9. water drive mechanism Many gas and oil reservoirs are produced by a mechanism termed water drive. Often this is called natural water drive to distinguish it from artificial water drive that involves the injection of water into the formation. Hydrocarbon production from the reservoir and the subsequent pressure drop prompt a response from the aquifer to offset the pressure decline. Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 9
  • 10. Aquifer response to pressure decline This response comes in a form of water influx, commonly called water encroachment, which is attributed to: Expansion of the water in the aquifer Compressibility of the aquifer rock Artesian flow where the water-bearing formation outcrop is located structurally higher than the pay zone Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 10
  • 11. Basis of reservoir-aquifer classification Reservoir-aquifer systems are commonly classified on the basis of: Degree of pressure maintenance Active water drive Partial water drive Limited water drive Flow regimes Outer boundary conditions Flow geometries Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 11
  • 12. active water drive The term active water drive refers to the water encroachment mechanism in which the rate of water influx equals the reservoir total production rate. Active water-drive reservoirs are typically characterized by a gradual and slow reservoir pressure decline. If, during any long period, the production rate and reservoir pressure remain reasonably constant, the reservoir voidage rate must be equal to the water influx rate. Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 12
  • 13. water influx rate ew = water influx rate, bbl/day Qo = oil flow rate, STB/day Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB Qg = free gas flow rate, scf/day Bg = gas formation volume factor, bbl/scf Qw = water flow rate, STB/day Bw = water formation volume factor, bbl/STB Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 13
  • 14. cumulative water influx Water influx rate can be equivalently expressed in terms of cumulative production by introducing the following derivative terms: We = cumulative water influx, bbl t = time, days Np = cumulative oil production, STB GOR = current gas-oil ratio, scf/STB Rs = current gas solubility, scf/STB Bg = gas formation volume factor, bbl/scf Wp = cumulative water production, STB dNp/dt = daily oil flow rate Qo, STB/day dWp/dt = daily water flow rate Qw, STB/day dWe/dt = daily water influx rate ew, bbl/day (GOR − Rs)dNp/dt = daily free gas flow rate, scf/day Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 14
  • 15. Outer Boundary Conditions The aquifer can be classified as infinite or finite (bounded). Geologically all formations are finite, but may act as infinite if the changes in the pressure at the oil-water contact are not “felt” at the aquifer boundary. Some aquifers outcrop and are infinite acting because of surface replenishment. Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 15
  • 16. Outer Boundary Conditions (Cont.) In general, the outer boundary governs the behavior of the aquifer and, therefore: Infinite system indicates that the effect of the pressure changes at the oil/aquifer boundary can never be felt at the outer boundary. This boundary is for all intents and purposes at a constant pressure equal to initial reservoir pressure. Finite system indicates that the aquifer outer limit is affected by the influx into the oil zone and that the pressure at this outer limit changes with time. Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 16
  • 17. Flow Regimes There are basically three flow regimes that influence the rate of water influx into the reservoir. those flow regimes are: Steady-state Semisteady (pseudosteady)-state Unsteady-state Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 17
  • 18. Flow Geometries Reservoir-aquifer systems can be classified on the basis of flow geometry as: Edge-water drive water moves into the flanks of the reservoir as a result of hydrocarbon production and pressure drop at the reservoir-aquifer boundary. The flow is essentially radial with negligible flow in the vertical direction. Bottom-water drive occurs in reservoirs with large areal extent and gentle dip where the reservoir-water contact completely underlies the reservoir. The flow is essentially radial and, in contrast to the edge-water drive, the bottom-water drive has significant vertical flow. Linear-water drive In linear-water drive, the influx is from one flank of the reservoir. The flow is strictly linear with a constant cross-sectional area. Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 18
  • 19. Flow geometries schmatics Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 19
  • 22. Natural water drive clue Normally very little information is obtained during the exploration-development period of a reservoir concerning the presence or characteristics of an aquifer that could provide a source of water influx during the depletion period. Natural water drive may be assumed by analogy with nearby producing reservoirs, but early reservoir performance trends can provide clues. A comparatively low, and decreasing, rate of reservoir pressure decline with increasing cumulative withdrawals is indicative of fluid influx. Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 22
  • 23. Indication of fluid influx Successive calculations of barrels withdrawn per psi change in reservoir pressure can supplement performance graphs. If the reservoir limits have not been delineated by developed dry holes, however, the influx could be from an undeveloped area of the reservoir not accounted for in averaging reservoir pressure. If the reservoir pressure is below the oil saturation pressure (Pr<Pb), a low rate of increase in produced gas-oil ratio is also indicative of fluid influx. Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 23
  • 24. water encroachment indications Early water production from edge wells is indicative of water encroachment. Such observations must be tempered by the possibility that the early water production is due to formation fractures; thin, high permeability streaks; or to coning in connection with a limited aquifer. The water production may be due to casing leaks. Calculation of increasing original oil in place from successive reservoir pressure surveys by using the material balance assuming no water influx is also indicative of fluid influx. Spring14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Engineering 2 Course (1st Ed.) 24
  • 25. 1. Ahmed, T. (2010). Reservoir engineering handbook (Gulf Professional Publishing). Chapter 10