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Pediatric crps low ward wines 2007
1.
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Pediatric Complex Regional Pain Syndrome Adrian K. Low, MBBS, Kate Ward, MPH, and Andrew P. Wines, FRACS sympathetic dystrophy) occurs without a definable nerve Abstract: Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) is a relatively lesion and (2) CRPS type II (previously known as causalgia) new diagnostic entity in pediatrics. There is debate as to what refers' to cases where a definable nerve lesion exists. The constitutes the most effective treatment for pediatric CRPS. This pathophysiology of CRPS is not com~letely understood4 •5 study presents the patient characteristics, clinical course, a~d and there is still debate as to what constItutes best treatment. treatment outcome of 20 children diagnosed with CRPS at a major Usually, this consists of active physical therapy, psycho children's hospital during a 4·year period. The results showed that logical therapy (cognitive-behavioral regimen), and other pediatric CRPS occurs predominantly in girls (90%) in later pain-relieving measures, including pharmacotherapy analge childhood and adolescence (mean age, 11.8 [range, 8-·16 years]). sics anticonvulsants, antidepressants) and, occasIOnally, It affects mainly the lower limbs (85%), with a predilection for the sym'pathetic blockage and spinal analgesia. , foot (75% ofall cases). and was frequently initiated by minor trauma Studies focusing on children with CRPS are on the nse. (80%). In many cases, there was a lengthy time to diagnosis (mean, Once considered rare among children, it is now thought that 13.6 weeks) that delayed the institution of treatment, which this may have been caused by under-recognition of the consisted of intensive physiotherapy and psychological therapy. disorder. Pediatric CRPS differs in many respects from adult Most children (70%) required adjuvant medications (amitriptyline CRPS.6-9 In children, the lower limb is more commonly and/or gabapentin) for analgesia and to enable them to parlicipate in affected, and significant trauma is a much less frequent physiotherapy. A high percentage of children had complete precipitating event than in adults. Children are also resolution of symptoms using this treatment regime (mean, 15.4 considered to have a better response to noninvasive treat weeks [range, 3 days to 64 weeks]), but 40% required treatment as a ment,7.10 and psychosocial factors are thought to play a hospital inpatient and 20% had a relapse episode. In conclusion, greater role. 8, 10-12 Therefore, treatment that has ~een reported pediatric CRPS is under-recognized by clinicians, resulting in to be successful in adults may not necessanly apply to diagnostic delays, but has a favorable outcome to noninvasive treat children. This study presents the patient characteristics, ment in that complete resolution of symptoms and signs occur in clinical course, and outcome of the cases of 20 children most patients. However, the lengthy period to achieve symptom diagnosed with CRPS at a major children's hospital. resolution in some children and a high relapse rate support the need for further research into other treatment modalities. METHODS Key Words: children, complex regional pain syndrome, pediatric, prognosis, reflex sympathetic dystrophy, treatment A review of medical records of children diagnosed with CRPS and who were treated in the pain clinic at the (J Pediatr Orthop 2007;27:567-572) Children's Hospital at Westmead during a 4-year period between January I, 2001, and December 31, 2.004, ~as performed. This study was approved by the hospItal ethICS committee. The diagnosis was made in all cases by a C atrophy, and constant, intense dystrophyare(RSD),disorders ausalgia, reflex sympathetic characterized by shoulder-hand syndrome pain Sudeck limb pain associated with consultant orthopaedic surgeon or pain specialist on the basis of clinical evaluation. Only children who met the diagnostic vasomotor and sudomotor abnormalities. First described by criteria of CRPS3 were included in the study. Twenty patients Mitchell et all during the American Civil War, these met these inclusion criteria. syndromes are now conceptualized as variants of a single The medical records of these children were used to entity: complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS).2 The main obtain demographic data, information on clinical presenta~ion characteristics of CRPS are (1) the presence of continuing and possible precipitating events, details of the VarIOUS pain that is disproportionate to the inciting event, and (2) the consultations made and investigations required prior making evidence of edema, skin blood flow changes, or abnormal a diagnosis. Any significant past history, famil.y history, or sudomotor activity in the region of the pain. 2•3 There are 2 psychosocial problems were also noted. The tIme taken to types of CRPS: (I) CRPS type 1 (previously known as reflex make a diagnosis was calculated from the date of reported onset of symptoms to the time when the patient was ~rst seen in the pain clinic. The time to symptom resolutIOn was calculated from the date the patient was first seen in the pain From the Children's Hospital at Westmead. Sydney, NSW, Australia. clinic to the time when symptoms were noted to be None of the authors received financial support for this study. Reprints: Adrian K. Low. MBBS, PO Box 212, Epping. NSW 1710, Austl'lliia. completely resolved. We noted the number of patients who E-mail: a.low@bigpond.nct.au. required a hospital admission, the total number. of days spent Copyright © 2007 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins in hospital, the nature of the treatment receIved, and the J Pediatr Orthop • Volume 27, Number 5, July/August 2007 567 Copyright © Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
2.
Low et at
J Pediatr Orthop • Volume 27, Number 5, July/August 2007 CRPS (Age of Onset) . TABLE 1. Investigation Modalities and Frequency 6 Investlgadon Frequency 5 III Radiograph 19 C 4 Gl Bone scan 14 :; 3 MR1 (limb) 7 II. o 2 MRI (spine) 2 Z 1 CT (limb) 2 CT (abdomen/pelvis) I o 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Blood pathology 5 Age (y) Ultrasound 3 Doppler studies (limb) 3 FIGURE 1. Age of onset. Arthroscopy (knee) 1 Electrocardiogram I Angiogram J number of relapses. We defined a relapse as a reCillTence of Nerve conduction study I symptoms after being symptom-free for at least 3 months. The treatment for all children consisted of an intensive physiotherapy program, supervised by an experienced There were no strict criteria for hospital admission. pediatric physiotherapist. This consisted of a graded exercise Patients who were admitted either had no improvement with program with the aim of increasing muscle strength, weight outpatient treatment or had a brief exacerbation of pain, bearing, and the range of motion in joints. Hydrotherapy, which was deemed to be better managed in hospital. The aim proprioception training, massage, and tactile desensitization of admission was to improve pain control and to provide more techniques were used. Children were also routinely referred intense physiotherapy. A daily timetable that consisted of for psychological assessment and intervention. Any psychiat attending school, hydrotherapy, physiotherapy, and gym ric disorder or psychosocial issues documented by the sessions was fonnulated for each child. Resocialization psychologist were recorded. A cognitive behavioral approach with other adolescents was encouraged through attendance was used which focused on improving skills in managing pain at adolescent groups, and independence was fostered by and other stressful situations. Children were taught anxiety teaching them skills in areas such as self-care. Anxiety management skills. which included relaxation therapy, management skills were reinforced, and visiting hours were assertiveness training, and problem solving. strictly enforced to lessen any secondary gain from family Simple analgesia (paracetamol, nonsteroidal anti· focus on pain. inflammatory drugs, and/or codeine) was frequently pre The children were followed up until their symptoms scribed, supplemented by adjuvant analgesia to enable the had resolved and, again, 3 months later. If they remained children to participate in physiotherapy. The adjuvant asymptomatic at this final visit, they were discharged from analgesia was prescribed by a pain consultant and consisted the pain clinic. of either a tricyclic antidepressant (amitriptyline, 10-20 mg at night) or an anticonvulsant (gabapentin, 300 mg nocte, up RESULTS to 300 mg 3 times daily). Twenty children were diagnosed and treated with CRPS type I at the Pain Clinic in The Children's Hospital at 100 Westmead between I January 2001 and 31 December 2004. 95 No cases ofCRPS type II were encountered during this period. 90 Follow-up was possible in 18 children until their symptoms J!! 85 had completely resolved. Of the 2 children lost to follow-up, 1 i 80 child was referred, at parental request, to a pain clinic closer to :; 75 their place ofresidence. The other patient was transferred to an II. 70 adult pain service when she turned 18 years old. "?fe. 65 60 Demographics 55 The age at onset ranged from 8 to 16 years, with a mean 50 '",~ ~ of 11.8 years (SD, ±1.8 years) (Fig. 1). Eighteen girls (90%) ~~ I} and 2 boys (lO%) were affected. The mean age of onset was olS ~ ~ ;;~ 12.1 years in girls and 8.9 years in boys. ~", ~"" ~-s ~'li Clinical Presentation R'" The low~r limb was affected in 17 children (85%). The "'",~ foot was affected in 15 children, the ankle in 1 child, and the FIGURE 2. Frequency of symptoms and signs. knee in another. In 10 children, the left side was affected. In 568 © 2007 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Copyright © Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
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• Volume 27, Number 5, July/August 2007 Pediatric Complex Regional Pain Syndrome TABLE 2. Time to Symptom Resolution Based on Treatment Received No. Patients No. Patients Lost Treatment No. Patients Time to Diagnosis Time Symptom Resolution Relapsers Admitted to Follow-up Physiotherapy alone I 17wk 64 wk Physiotherapy + medications I 9d 15 wk Physiotherapy + psychological 5 17.6 wk (2-41 wk) 16.7 wk (4-25 wk)* 1 Physiotherapy/psychological/ 13 12.7 wk (2 d to 41 wkl 11.0 wk (3 d to 26 wk)* 4 7 medications *Calculations exclude patient lost to follow. up. the 3 cases (15%) where the upper limbs were affected, 2 (n = I). An ultrasound scan of the wrist showed cases involved the right wrist and hand, and the other generalized edema in the subcutaneous tissue; otherwise, involved the entire left arm. all other investigation modalities revealed no abnormalities. Sixteen children (80%) reported a precipitating episode Once the diagnosis was made, patients were treated in a oftrauma, which was relatively minor in all cases. The common multidisciplinary fashion. Children received intensive physio reported mechanisms ofinjury included falls (n =6) and sprains therapy (20 children [100%]), psychological intervention (n = 6), with 8 cases occurring during sporting or recreational (18 children [90%]), and adjuvant analgesics (14 [70%]) activities and 3 cases during school. Only I case involved a (Table 2). Two families declined psychological evaluation radiologically proven fracture (tip ofthe distal fibula). Of the 4 and intervention. Thirteen children received amitriptyline, children (20%) who could not recall a precipitating event, 3 and 3 received gabapentin. Two patients received both reported waking up with symptoms of CRPS. amitriptyline and gabapentin. The administration of these Two children with CRPS of the foot had a past history medications tended to be commenced early to facilitate of Sever disease affecting the same foot. Three children had physiotherapy and was weaned when symptoms had subsided. reported an earlier episode where symptoms were possibly No adverse effects were noted, and no patients received related to CRPS. nerve blocks. The frequency of symptoms and signs is illustrated in Eight children (40%) were treated as a hospital Figure 2. All patients reported a continuing pain that was inpatient at some stage during their illness. Of these, I disproportionate to the precipitating event. All patients had child required 2 admissions into hospital, I child a third, and al10dynia and a decreased range of movement in the affected another required a fourth admission. The total number of limb. Most children also exhibited edema, temperature days spent in hospital of each of these patients is shown in asymmetry, and skin color changes. Trophic changes of Figure 3. The mean stay for each admission was 14.3 days the hair, nails, or skin or any sweating changes were not (range, 4-24 days). included because they were inconsistently noted in the patient records. Outcome Two girls (age, 10 and 16 years) were lost to follow-up. Clinical Course Their mean time to diagnosis was 15.5 weeks (13-18 weeks), The mean time to diagnosis was 13.6 weeks (range, 2 and only the 16-year-old reported a precipitating history of days to 41 weeks). The number ofspecialists consulted before trauma. Each had seen 3 specialists and had 4.5 (range, 4-5) the patient was seen in the pain clinic averaged 2.7 (range, investigations performed, which all showed no abnormalities. 1-6). The specialist fields consulted included orthopaedics, pediatrics, rheumatology, neurology, accident and emer gency, and general practice. 90 All children underwent some form of investigation 80 before the diagnosis ofCRPS was made (Table 1). The most common investigation modalities used were plain radiog S 70 raphy in 19 children (95%), 3-phase technetium bone scan in .~ 60 o 14 (70%), and a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 9 .r:. 50 (45%) children. Each child had a mean of 3.0 investigations. .5 Because most children reported an episode of trauma, til 40 ~ radiographs were often perfom1ed as the first-line investiga 1J 30 tion modality, primarily to exclude a fracture. Only I patient S ~ 20 had a fracture (distal fibula). When radiographs were performed later in the course of the disease, generalized osteopenia was 10 almost universally observed. Bone scans were conducted o within 3 months from the onset of symptoms. Diffuse hypo One Two Three Four perfusion was the most common pattern (n = 7), followed No. Admissions by a normal scan (n = 6), then by diffuse hyperperfusion FIGURE 3. Time as inpatient. © 2007 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 569 Copyright © Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
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J Pediatr Orthop • Volume 27, Number 5, July/August 2007 TABLE 3. Time to Symptom Resolution Based on Time to Diagnosis Time to Diagnosis, Time to Symptom No. Patients No. Patients mean (range) No. Patients Resolution, mean (range) No. Relapsen Admltted Lost to Follow-up <3 Mo 5.0 wk (2 d to 9 wk) 10 10.6 wk (4-25 wk) 2 2 >3 Mo 22.2 wk (12-41 wk) 10 21.5 wk (3 d to 64 wk)'" 2 6 2 'Calculations exclude patients lost to follow-up. They were treated for 23 months (range, 22-24 months) in the recovered and that medications were masking the symptoms clinic and were still symptomatic at the time of transfer. The during this period. Only in I child was the recurrence pre 16-year-old received only physiotherapy and psychological cipitated by an episode of trauma. intervention. She was admitted to hospital on 4 occasions for a total of 80 days. The 10-year-old received physiotherapy, Outcome Summary psychological intervention, and amitriptyline and had been Symptoms and signs resolved together in all cases. The admitted to hospital 3 times for a total of 28 days. mean time to resolution of symptoms (single episode and Four children (3 girls and I boy; mean age, 11.6 years relapse groups) was 15.4 weeks (range, 3 days to 64 weeks) [range, 9-13 years]) experienced a relapse. We defined a for the first episode ofCRPS and 12.8 weeks (7-19 weeks) for relapse as a recurrence of symptoms after being symptom each subsequent relapse episode. Notably, these figures free for at least 3 months. They relapsed after a mean of 28.8 exclude the 2 children lost to follow-up who had the most weeks (range, 16-37 weeks) from the end of the first episode resistant form of CRPS and were still symptomatic up to 2 (mean length of first episode, 7.7 weeks [range, 3 days to 23 years from commencement of treatment. weeks]). One child had a second relapse 6 months after the The mean times to symptom resolution (for the first first relapse ended. Each relapse (total, 5) lasted, on average, episode) based on time to diagnosis (Table 3), bone scan 12.8 weeks (range, 7-19 weeks). The mean time to diagnosis' result (Table 4), and treatment received (Table 2) are was 8 weeks (range, 2 days to 15 weeks). The foot/ankle was shown. affected in all cases, and each patient received physiotherapy, psychological intervention, and adjuvant analgesia during both initial and relapse episodes. Two children reported a DISCUSSION precipitating episode of trauma to account for the first Complex regional pain syndrome was once considered episode. With regard to the relapse episode, only I child very tmcommoll in children. lo The growing number of case reported a precipitating episode of trauma. Three children series and clinical outcome studies is evidence of our were admitted once to hospital (mean length of stay, 13.7 increasing awareness and recognition of pediatric CRPS. days [range, 4-24 days]). All 4 children were asymptomatic The differences between pediatric and adult CRPS have been at final follow-up. reported,6-9 but it is still not clear what constitutes the most Fourteen children (13 girls and 1 boy; mean age, 11.7 effective treatment for pediatric CRPS. years [range, 8-13 years]) had only 1 episode of CRPS, with The current study found that pediatric CRPS had a all children having complete resolution of their symptoms at strong affliction both for girls and for the lower limb, final follow-up. The mean time to diagnosis was 14.9 weeks especially the foot. It tended to affect older children (mean (range, 1-41 weeks), and the mean time to symptom age, 11.8 years), with no child younger than 8 years affected. resolution was 17.6 weeks (range, 4-64 weeks). Two patients It was also found to be frequently precipitated by an episode had 1 hospital admission, and 1 patient had 2 admissions of trauma, which is· almost always minor in nature. These (mean length of stay for each admission, 12.8 days [range, findings are very similar to those of previous reports.6-9.J2 In 8-24 days]). adult CRPS, there is a less marked female predominance; it This group included 3 children who had a repeat affects mainly the upper limbs and is almost always triggered occurrence after being asymptomatic for about a month. By by an episode of trauma. 13 Up to half of pediatric CRPS cases our definition, they were not considered relapsers. Because may not report a precipitating episode of trauma. 6•7 Estrogen the weaning of adjuvant analgesia only began when the dependent pain responses may explain sex differences in symptoms had subsided, it is possible that they had not fully CRPS, but its rarity in early childhood and the marked TABLE 4. Time to Symptom Resolution Based on Bone Scan Result Time to Diagnosis, Time to Symptom Resolution, No. Patients No. Patients Lost Bone Scan No. Patients mean (range) mean (range) No. Relapsers Admitted to Follow-up Hypopcrfusion 7 9.2 wk (1-15 wk) 12.2 wk (3 d to 26 wk) 2 4 Nonnal 6 12.9 wk (3-18 wk) 28.4 wk (4--64 wk)O I 3 2 Hypcrpcrfusion 1 34 wk 16 wk 'Calculations exclude patients lost to follow-up. 570 © 2007 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Copyright © Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
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• Volume 27, Number 5, July/August 2007 Pediatric Complex Regional Pain Syndrome predilection for the lower limbs in children have not been achievers on their psychological profile, a characteristic that adequately explained. 14 has been recognized in other studies.?·9 The main purpose of A troublesome finding in almost all studies on pediatric psychological intervention in this study was to improve CRPS has been the delays in diagnosis. Average delays of up skills in managing pain and in other stressful situations. to a year were not uncommon a decade ago. 8•9 Our study and However, the quality of treatment received and the ultimate a more recent one? have shown marked improvement, but still effect on outcome is very difficult to measure, but it does less than ideal, with an average delay of about 3 months. seem to be an important adjunct to physiotherapy.6.12 Murray et al? noted that in 15% of children, it still took more Good results have been achieved with physiotherapy as than 12 months to come up with a diagnosis and, in the the primary mode oftreatrnent. but better results are observed current study, it took more than 6 months to come up with a when combined with psychological intervention. Dietz et al 16 diagnosis in 3 children (15%). It is clear from both studies reported on 5 cases of RSD and summarized 80 cases in the that despite our increased awareness of the disorder in literature. They stated that noninvasive, nonpharmacological children, it still remains a diagnostic challenge, with most therapy was successful in 78% of the patients discussed in the patients having seen a number of specialists and having been literature. In their own study, 4 of 5 patients were treated subjected to multiple investigations before a diagnosis is successfully by means of an outpatient physiotherapy made. In CRPS, trophic changes tend to occur as the disease program. With physiotherapy and psychological intervention, progresses; thus, treatment is most likely to be effective when II of 15 patients available for long-term follow-up were commenced early. We noted that in children who were functioning normally, with no significant sequelae. 15 In diagnosed early «3 months), symptom resolution occurred another study where the focus was on intense physiotherapy much more rapidly than in those diagnosed later (l0.6 vs 21.5 but where 77% of patients had been referred for psycholog weeks, respectively). Later diagnosis was also associated ical counseling, 43 of 49 (88%) patients had no symptoms of with a higher rate of hospitalization and included the 2 CRPS after a mean follow-up of 5 years. 6 No medications patients lost to follow-up, who were still symptomatic after 2 were used in that study. years of treatment. However, compliance with physiotherapy is often Pediatric CRPS is a clinical diagnosis and investiga difficult without some form of analgesia. Most patients in tions are generally only useful to exclude other pathology. In the current study received simple analgesia, and 70% also some series, fractures have been demonstrated in up to 14% received adjuvant analgesia (amitriptyline, gabapentin). Both ofcases,9 but this is uncommon. 6,sln the current study, only 1 these medications were found to be effective in improving patient had a fracture; however, when radiographs were pain with minimal adverse effects. When commenced early, performed later in the course of the disease, diffuse there was good compliance with physiotherapy. Adjuvant osteopenia, secondary to disuse, was almost universally analgesia was continued until symptoms were either minimal observed. One child even had a knee arthroscopy, which or had completely subsided, after which its administration could potentially have exacerbated the condition. Bone was slowly weaned. In adults, amitriptyline and gabapentin scanning in adult CRPS often shows diffuse hyperperfusion, are reported to be efficacious in treatment ofCRPS I7.18; in a but this is the least common pattern in pediatric CRPS. study of RSD in children, 23 (56%) of 41 patients who Children tend to exhibit diffuse hypoperfusion or even a received tricyclic antidepressants and 5 (42%) of 12 patients normal scan,6,15 and our results agree with these findings. who received anticonvulsants had reported substantial Thus, diffusely abnormal findings can be helpful in diagnos improvement in symptoms. Using an alternate foml of ing pediatric CRPS, but a normal scan does not exclude it. We analgesia (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs [in 41 % of also investigated the role of bone scan as a possible patients], combined with physiotherapy and psychological prognostic indicator. Those with diffuse hypoperfusion intervention [in 20% of patients]), the median time to achieved symptom resolution much quicker (time to symp recovery was 7 weeks (range, 1-140 weeks); however, 10% tom resolution, 12.2 weeks) than did those with normal scans of patients still reported problems beyond a year. 7 (time to symptom resolution, 28.4 weeks). The 2 patients lost The current study also had good results with a to follow-up, who were still symptomatic at 2 years, had combination of physiotherapy, psychological intervention, normal bone scans and were not included in the calculations. and pharmacotherapy. Twelve of 13 children at final follow If included, the difference between groups would even be up had complete resolution of symptoms and for the first greater. Ultimately, it is difficult to determine whether there is episode of CRPS, this occurred in 11.0 weeks. However, all a real difference, considering the small numbers and the the relapsers and almost all patients who required hospitali number of uncontrolled variables in each group. zation were included in this group. With regard to those who After diagnosis, all children commenced intensive received only physiotherapy and psychological intervention, physiotherapy and were referred for psychological evalua 4 of 5 patients were completely asymptomatic at final follow tion and intervention. Some studies have reported that up, and this occurred in 16.7 weeks. However, 2 children abnomlalities are frequently detected after psychological were still symptomatic at 2 years despite either treatment evaluation; recurring themes include the presence of family regime. The relapse rate (20%) was relatively high but was dysfunction, lack of self-assertiveness, nonverbalization of lower than in other studies, which have reported relapse rates feelinis and performance pressure in school and of 27.5% to 36%.6.7,[2 These studies used predominantly sports.. 1b.11 In the current study, 110 psychiatric disorder physiotherapy and psychological intervention. Furthermore, was evident. Eleven children (55%) were labeled as high we found relapse episodes to be more resistant to treatment, © 2007 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 571 Copyright © Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
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J Pediatr Orthop • Volume 27, Number 5, July/August 2007 with relapse episodes lasting longer than does the initial but presented elsewhere. Both scenarios would increase our episode (12.8 vs 7.7 weeks, respectively) despite receiving reported relapse rate. similar treatment. Retrospective studies of multimodal therapy have not clearly shown invasive treatment to provide additional benefit. REFERENCES In a study using physical therapy, transcutaneous electrical I. Mitchell SW, Morehouse GR, Kean WW. Gunshot Wounds and Other nerve stimulation, psychological counseling, and systemic Injuries ofNerves. New York, NY: Lippincott; 1864. 2. Mcrskcy H. Bogduk N. Classificatioll ofChronic Pain: Descriptions medications and where 19% of patients had a sympathetic of Chronic Pain Syndromes and Definitions ofPain Terms. 2nd cd. block, the average duration of symptoms was 9 months, with 9 Seattle. WA: lASP Press: 1994. (25%) of 36 patients still having symptoms at final follow-up. 8 3. Harden RN. Bruehl S, Galer BS. et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: In another study, 38 (54%) of 70 children continued to have arc the lASP diagnostic criteria valid and sufficiently comprehensive? some degree of residual pain and dysfunction at final follow Paill. 1999;83:211-219. 4. Janig W, Baron R. Complex regional pain syndrome: mystery explained? Up9 when physical therapy, transcutaneous electrical nerve Lancet Neurol. 2003;2:687-697. stimulation, psychological therapy, sympathetic blocks, and 5. Birklein F, Handwerker HO. Complex regional pain syndrome: phaonacotherapy (tricyclic antidepressants, anticonvulsants, how to resolve the complexity? Pain. 2001;94:1-Q. and corticosteroids) were used. However, the investigators 6. Sherry DO, Wallace CA, Kelley C, et al. Shorl- and long-tcnn outcomes found sympathetic blocks to be highly effective, with 14 of children with complex regional pain syndrome type 1 treated with exercise therapy. CUn J Pain. 1999; 15:218-223. (38%) of 37 patients having complete resolution and another 7. Murray CS, Cohen A. Perkins T, et al. Morbidity in reflex sympathetic 14 (38%) having substantial improvement in symptoms. Many dystrophy. Arch Dis Child. 2000;82:231-233. studies, including ours, have reported good compliance with 8. Wesdock KA, Stanton RP, Singsen BH. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy physiotherapy without the need of a sympathetic block, but in children. A physical therapy approach. Arthritis Care Res. 1991; 4:32-38. their role in cases that prove resistant to conservative 9. Wilder RT. Berde CB. Wolohan M. ct al. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy treatment has not been clearly defined. in children. Clinical characteristics and follow-up of seventy patients. In conclusion, significant delays in diagnosis of CRPS J BOlle Jolm Surg Am. 1992;74:910-919. in children are still evident despite our apparent increased 10. Bernstein BH, Singsen BH. Kent JT, ct at. Reflex neurovascular awareness of the disorder. Prompt recognition will avoid dystrophy in childhood. J Pediatr. 1978;93:211-215. II. Sherry DO, Weisman R. Psychologic aspects of childhood reflex many unnecessary consultations and investigations, and early neurovascular dystrophy. Pediatrics. 1988;81 :572-578. referral to a specialist pain service for initiation of treatment 12. Lee BH, ScharffL, Sethna NF. et al. Physical therapy and may lead to quicker resolution of symptoms. Pediatric CRPS cognitive-behavioral treatment for complex regional pain syndromes. appears to have a good prognosis because a high percentage J Pediatr. 2002; 141: 135-140. 13. Sandroni P. Benrud-Larson LM. MeClel1and RL. et al. Complex regional of patients are expected to have complete resolution of their pain syndrome type J: incidence and prevalence in Olmsted county, symptoms and signs without the need for any invasive a population-based study. Paill. 2003;103:199--207. treatment. However, the condition is not benign, with many 14. Berdo CB, Lebel A. Complex regional paio syndromes in children and patients requiring a long period of treatment, and the relapse adolescents. Anesthesiology. 2005; I02:252-255. rate is high. Study weaknesses include the small sample size, 15. Goldsmith DP, Vivino FB, Eieheofield AH, et al. Nuclear imaging and clinical features of childhood reflex neurovascular dystrophy: with 10% loss on follow-up, and the retrospective nature of comparison with adults. Anhritis Rheum. 1989;32:480-485. the study. There was no control group and, thus, it is possible 16. Dietz FR. Mathews KD. Montgomery WJ. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy that symptom resolution was not caused by treatment. Patient in children. CUn Orthop Reiat Res. 1990:22'>-231. selection bias was a factor, and it is possible that milder foons 17. Kingery WS. A critical review of controlled clinical trials for peripheral neuropathic pain and complex regional pain syndromes. Paill. 1997; of CRPS were either not referred or resolved without 73:123-139. treatment. Finally, some children in the study may come to 18. Mel1iek GA. Mel1iek LB. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy treated with have a relapse in the future or may already have had a relapse gabapentin. Arch Phys Med Rehabl/. 1997;78:98--105. 572 © 2007 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Copyright © Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
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