Women in Agriculture - Making a Strong Case for Investing in Women

ISSN 0081-4539

2010-11
THE STATE
OF FOOD
AND
AGRICULTURE

WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE
Closing the gender gap for development

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ISSN 0081-4539

2010-11
THE STATE
OF FOOD
AND
AGRICULTURE

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Rome, 2011

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iii

Contents

Foreword vi
Acknowledgements viii
Abbreviations and acronyms x

Part I
Women in agriculture: closing the gender gap for development 1

1. The gender gap in agriculture 3
Structure of the report and key messages 5
Key messages of the report 5
2. Women’s work 7
Women in agriculture 7
Women in rural labour markets 16
Key messages 22
3. Documenting the gender gap in agriculture 23
Land 23
Livestock 24
Farm labour 26
Education 28
Information and extension 32
Financial services 33
Technology 34
Key messages 36
4. Gains from closing the gender gap 39
Productivity of male and female farmers 40
Production gains from closing the gender gap 41
Other social and economic benefits of closing the gender gap 43
Key messages 45
5. Closing the gender gap in agriculture and rural employment 46
Closing the gap in access to land 46
Closing the gap in rural labour markets 49
Closing the financial services gap 51
Closing the gap in social capital through women’s groups 53
Closing the technology gap 56
Key messages 58
6. Closing the gender gap for development 61

Part II
World food and agriculture in review 63

Trends in undernourishment 65
Food production, consumption and trade during the crises 68
Recent trends in agricultural prices: a higher price plateau, and greater price volatility 76
Conclusions 81

iv

PART III
Statistical annex 83

Notes on the Annex tables 85
TABLE A1 Total population, female share of population and rural share of population
in 1980, 1995 and 2010 90
TABLE A2 Female share of national, rural and urban population aged 15–49,
most recent and earliest observations 97
TABLE A3 Economically active population, female share of economically active
population and agricultural share of economically active women
in 1980, 1995 and 2010 104
TABLE A4 Economically active population, agricultural share of economically active
population and female share of economically active in agriculture
in 1980, 1995 and 2010 111
TABLE A5 Share of households in rural areas that are female-headed, most recent
and earliest observations, and total agricultural holders and female share
of agricultural holders, most recent observations 118
Table A6 Share of adult population with chronic energy deficiency (CED – body mass
index less than 18.5) by sex and share of children underweight by sex,
residence and household wealth quintile, most recent observations 125

References 135
Special chapters of The State of Food and Agriculture 146

TABLES

1. Employment in selected high-value agro-industries 21
2. Selected examples of health insurance products targeted towards women 52

BOXES

1. Sex versus gender 4
2. Frequently asked questions about women in agriculture 8
3. Women and unpaid household responsibilities 14
4. Female farmers, household heads and data limitations 24
5. Labour productivity and hunger, nutrition and health 27
6. Women in agricultural higher education and research in Africa 30
7. Smallholder coffee production and marketing in Uganda 37
8. Targeting transfer payments to women for social benefits 44
9. Mama Lus Frut: working together for change 47
10. India’s Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) 54
11. Women in a sustainable rural livelihoods programme in Uganda 59
12. Food emergencies 70
13. Implied volatility as a measure of uncertainty 79
14. Price volatility and FAO’s Intergovernmental Groups on Grains and Rice 81

v

FIGURES

1. Female share of the agricultural labour force 10
2. Proportion of labour in all agricultural activities that is supplied by women 11
3. Proportion of labour for selected crops that is supplied by women 12
4. Employment by sector 17
5. Participation in rural wage employment, by gender 18
6. Conditions of employment in rural wage employment, by gender 19
7. Wage gap between men and women in urban and rural areas 20
8. Share of male and female agricultural holders in main developing regions 25
9. Rural household assets: farm size 25
10. Household livestock assets, in male- and female-headed households 26
11. Education of male and female rural household heads 28
12. Gender differences in rural primary education attendance rates 29
13. Credit use by female- and male-headed households in rural areas 33
14. Fertilizer use by female- and male-headed households 35
15. Mechanical equipment use by female- and male-headed households 36
16. Cereal yield and gender inequality 39
17. Number of undernourished people in the world, 1969–71 to 2010 66
18. Proportion of population that is undernourished in developing regions,
1969–71 to 2010 66
19. Number of undernourished people in 2010, by region 67
20. FAO Food Price Index in real terms, 1961–2010 68
21. Average annual percentage change in GDP per capita at constant prices, 2005–2010 69
22. Annual growth in global food production, consumption and trade, 2006–2010 72
23. Indices of per capita food consumption by geographic region, 2000–10 72
24. Indices of food production by economic group 73
25. Indices of food production by region, 2000–10 74
26. Indices of food export volumes by geographic region, 2000–10 75
27. Indices of food import volumes by geographic region, 2000–10 75
28. FAO Food Price Index and indices of other commodities (fruits, beverages and
raw materials), October 2000–October 2010 76
29. Indices of prices of commodities included in the FAO Food Price Index (cereals,
oils, dairy, meat and sugar), October 2000–October 2010 77
30. Historic annualized volatility of international grain prices 78
31. Co-movement of energy production costs: ethanol from maize versus petrol
from crude oil, October 2006–October 2010 80

vi

Foreword

This edition of The State of Food and The obstacles that confront women
Agriculture addresses Women in agriculture: farmers mean that they achieve lower yields
closing the gender gap for development. than their male counterparts. Yet women are
The agriculture sector is underperforming in as good at farming as men. Solid empirical
many developing countries, and one of the evidence shows that if women farmers used
key reasons is that women do not have equal the same level of resources as men on the
access to the resources and opportunities land they farm, they would achieve the same
they need to be more productive. This yield levels. The yield gap between men and
report clearly confirms that the Millennium women averages around 20–30 percent,
Development Goals on gender equality and most research finds that the gap is due
(MDG 3) and poverty and food security to differences in resource use. Bringing
(MDG 1) are mutually reinforcing. We must yields on the land farmed by women
promote gender equality and empower up to the levels achieved by men would
women in agriculture to win, sustainably, the increase agricultural output in developing
fight against hunger and extreme poverty. countries between 2.5 and 4 percent.
I firmly believe that achieving MDG 3 can Increasing production by this amount could
help us achieve MDG 1. reduce the number of undernourished
Women make crucial contributions in people in the world in the order of
agriculture and rural enterprises in all 12–17 percent. According to FAO’s latest
developing country regions, as farmers, estimates, 925 million people are currently
workers and entrepreneurs. Their roles vary undernourished. Closing the gender gap in
across regions but, everywhere, women face agricultural yields could bring that number
gender-specific constraints that reduce their down by as much as 100–150 million people.
productivity and limit their contributions These direct improvements in agricultural
to agricultural production, economic output and food security are just one part of
growth and the well-being of their families, the significant gains that could be achieved
communities and countries. by ensuring that women have equal access
Women face a serious gender gap in to resources and opportunities. Closing
access to productive resources. Women the gender gap in agriculture would put
control less land than men and the land more resources in the hands of women and
they control is often of poorer quality and strengthen their voice within the household
their tenure is insecure. Women own fewer – a proven strategy for enhancing the food
of the working animals needed in farming. security, nutrition, education and health of
They also frequently do not control the children. And better fed, healthier children
income from the typically small animals they learn better and become more productive
manage. Women farmers are less likely than citizens. The benefits would span generations
men to use modern inputs such as improved and pay large dividends in the future.
seeds, fertilizers, pest control measures and The gender gap is manifest in other ways.
mechanical tools. They also use less credit and Gender relations are social phenomena
often do not control the credit they obtain. and it is impossible to separate women’s
Finally, women have less education and less economic spheres from their household
access to extension services, which make it activities. Preparing food and collecting
more difficult to gain access to and use some firewood and water are time-consuming and
of the other resources, such as land, credit binding constraints that must be addressed
and fertilizer. These factors also prevent if women are to be able to spend their time
women from adopting new technologies as in more rewarding and more productive
readily as men do. The constraints women ways. Interventions must consider women
face are often interrelated and need to be within their family and community contexts.
addressed holistically. Making rural labour markets function better,

vii

providing labour-saving technologies and would be significant. The basic principles
public goods and services, would enable are clear. We must eliminate all forms of
women to contribute more effectively to, discrimination against women under the
and benefit more fully from, the economic law, ensure that access to resources is more
opportunities offered by agricultural equal and that agricultural policies and
growth. programmes are gender-aware, and make
There exists no blueprint for closing the women’s voices heard in decision-making
gender gap in agriculture, as a wide range at all levels. Women must be seen as equal
of inputs, assets, services and markets are partners in sustainable development.
involved and the related constraints are Achieving gender equality and empowering
interlinked. But with appropriate policies women is not only the right thing to do; it is
based on accurate information and analysis, also crucial for agricultural development and
progress can be made and the benefits food security.

Jacques Diouf
FAO DIRECTOR-GENERAL

viii

Acknowledgements

The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11 Ruth Vargas Hill, Ephraim Nkonya, Amber
was prepared by members of the Economic Peterman, Esteban J. Quiñones and Agnes
and Social Development Department of Quisumbing, (IFPRI); Christopher Coles, Priya
FAO under the overall leadership of Hafez Deshingkar, Rebecca Holmes, Nicola Jones,
Ghanem, Assistant Director-General, and Jonathan Mitchell and Marcella Vigneri
Kostas Stamoulis, Director of the Agricultural (ODI); Diana Fletschner (Rural Development
Development Economics Division (ESA). Institute) and Lisa Kenney (University of
Additional guidance was provided by Marcela Washington); Christine Okali (University
Villarreal, Director, and Eve Crowley, Principal of East Anglia); Jan Lundius (independent
Adviser, of the Gender, Equity and Rural consultant); and Holger Seebens (KfW
Employment Division (ESW); Pietro Gennari, Entwicklungsbank). Additional background
Director, Statistics Division (ESS); David papers were prepared by the following FAO
Hallam, Director, Trade and Markets Division staff members: Gustavo Anríquez, Yasmeen
(EST); and Keith Wiebe, Principal Officer, ESA. Khwaja, Lucia Palombi (FAO Emergency
The research and writing team for Part I Operations and Rehabilitation Division) and
was led by Terri Raney, André Croppenstedt Paola Termine (ESW). The report also drew
and Gustavo Anríquez and included Sarah on papers prepared for the FAO-IFAD-ILO
Lowder, Ira Matuschke and Jakob Skoet Workshop on Gender and Rural Employment
(ESA). Additional inputs were provided and synthesized by Soline de Villard and
by Luisa Cruz, Ana Paula de la O Campos, Jennie Dey de Pryck. The report benefited
Stefano Gerosa, Yasmeen Khwaja, Faith from two expert consultations, partially
Nilsson and Panagiotis Karfakis (ESA); funded by the World Bank. In addition to
Francesca Dalla Valle, Soline de Villard, many of those mentioned above, external
Caroline Dookie, John Curry, Zoraida Garcia, participants included Isatou Jallow (WFP),
Denis Herbel, Regina Laub, Maria Lee, Johannes Jütting (OECD), Patricia Biermayr-
Yianna Lambrou, Marta Osorio, Hajnalka Jenzano (CIAT), Markus Goldstein and
Petrics, Gabriel Rugalema, Libor Stloukal, Eija Pehu (World Bank), Maria Hartl and
Sophie Treinen and Peter Wobst (ESW); Annina Lubbock (IFAD), Jemima Njuki (ILRI),
Magdalena Blum (FAO Office of Knowledge Thelma Paris (IRRI), Patrick Webb (Tufts
Exchange, Research and Extension); Holger University), and Manfred Zeller (University of
Matthey (EST); Anni McLeod and Frauke Hohenheim). Hela Kochbati (Afard), Robert
Kramer (FAO Animal Production and Health Mazur (Iowa State University) and others
Division); Helga Josupeit, Rebecca Metzner made valuable contributions to the Global
and Stefania Vannuccini (FAO Fisheries Forum on Food Security and Nutrition (FSN
and Aquaculture Policy and Economic Forum) on Women in Agriculture, organized
Division); Robert Mayo (ESS) and Diana by Max Blanck and Renata Mirulla (ESA).
Tempelman (FAO Regional Office for Africa). We are grateful for many useful comments
Ines Smyth (Oxfam), Cathy Farnworth (on received at a mini-symposium organized at
behalf of IFAD), Elisenda Estruch (ESW) the International Association of Agricultural
and Julian Thomas and Frank Mischler Economists Triennial Conference.
(ESA) provided valuable comments. We are In addition, the final draft report was
also grateful to Amy Heyman who read, reviewed by Patrick Webb (Tufts University),
commented and edited the first draft of Diana Fletschner (Rural Development
the report. The report was prepared in Institute), Thomas P. Thompson (IFDC),
close collaboration with Agnes Quisumbing Maria Hartl (IFAD), Carmen Diana Deere
and Ruth Meinzen-Dick of IFPRI and Cheryl (UCLA), Susana Lastarria-Corhiel (University
Doss of Yale University. Background papers, of Wisconsin), Jo Swinnen (University of
partially funded by ESW, were prepared by Leuven), Patricia Biermayr-Jenzano, Joanne
Cheryl Doss; Julia Behrman, Andrew Dillon, Sandler and colleagues (UNIFEM), Barbara

ix

Stocking (Oxfam GB), Paul Munro-Faure Ramasawmy, Mukesh Srivastava, and Franco
and Paul Mathieu (FAO Climate, Energy and Stefanelli (ESS); Diana Tempelman; Maria
Tenure Division), Ruth Meinzen-Dick (IFPRI), Adelaide D’Arcangelo, Zoraida Garcia and
Agnes Quisumbing (IFPRI), and Cheryl Doss Clara Park (ESW), and Barbara Burlingame
(Yale University). The writing team is most and Marie-Claude Dop (FAO Nutrition and
grateful to the workshop participants and Consumer Protection Division).
other internal and external reviewers of The publication was greatly enhanced
various drafts of the manuscript. by Michelle Kendrick (ESA) who provided
Part II of the report was jointly authored English editorial and project management
by Sarah Lowder (ESA) and Holger Matthey support. Liliana Maldonado and Paola
and Merritt Cluff (EST), under the guidance di Santo (ESA) provided excellent
of Jakob Skoet. Additional inputs were administrative support throughout the
provided by Joshua Dewbre and Kisan Gunjal process. Translations and printing services
(EST). were provided by the Meeting Programming
Part III of the report was prepared by and Documentation Service of the FAO
Sarah Lowder, with assistance from Brian Corporate Services, Human Resources and
Carisma and Stefano Gerosa, under the Finance Department. Graphic, layout and
guidance of Terri Raney. Helpful comments proofing services were provided by Flora
were provided by Naman Keita, Seevalingum Dicarlo and Visiontime.

x

Abbreviations and acronyms

CED chronic energy deficiency

CIAT International Centre for Tropical Agriculture

FFS Farmer field school

FPI Food Price Index (FAO)

ICTs information and communication technologies

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

IFDC International Fertilizer Development Center

IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute

ILRI International Livestock Research Institute

IMF International Monetary Fund

LSMS Living Standards Measurement Study

MDG Millennium Development Goal

NGOs non-governmental organizations

NREGA National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (India)

ODI Overseas Development Institute (United Kingdom)

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

RIGA Rural Income Generating Activities

SIGI Social Institutions and Gender Inequality

UCLA University of California, Los Angeles (United States of America)

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women

WFP World Food Programme

Part I
WOMEN
IN AGRICULTURE
Closing the gender gap for development

W O M E N I N A G R I C U L T U R E : C losi n g t h e ge n de r g a p fo r de v elop m e n t

3

1. The gender gap in agriculture

Agriculture is underperforming in many As a result, it is often assumed that
developing countries for a number of interventions in areas such as technology,
reasons. Among these is the fact that women infrastructure and market access have the
lack the resources and opportunities they same impacts on men and women, when in
need to make the most productive use of fact they may not.
their time. Women are farmers, workers At the same time, building a gender
and entrepreneurs, but almost everywhere perspective into agricultural policies and
they face more severe constraints than projects has been made to seem more
men in accessing productive resources, difficult and complex than it need be.
markets and services. This “gender gap” Clarification of what is meant by gender is a
hinders their productivity and reduces their good place to start (Box 1).
contributions to the agriculture sector and to The last sentence in Box 1 also gives room
the achievement of broader economic and for hope: gender roles can change. It is the
social development goals. Closing the gender goal of this report that it will contribute to
gap in agriculture would produce significant improving understanding so that appropriate
gains for society by increasing agricultural policies can help foster gender equality,
productivity, reducing poverty and hunger even as agriculture itself is changing.
and promoting economic growth. The agriculture sector is becoming more
Governments, donors and development technologically sophisticated, commercially
practitioners now recognize that agriculture oriented and globally integrated; at the
is central to economic growth and food same time, migration patterns and climate
security – particularly in countries where a variability are changing the rural landscape
significant share of the population depends across the developing world. These forces
on the sector – but their commitment to pose challenges and present opportunities for
gender equality in agriculture is less robust. all agricultural producers, but women face
Gender issues are now mentioned in most additional legal and social barriers that limit
national and regional agricultural and their ability to adapt to and benefit from
food-security policy plans, but they are change. Governments and donors have made
usually relegated to separate chapters on major commitments aimed at revitalizing
women rather than treated as an integral agriculture in developing regions, but their
part of policy and programming. Many efforts in agriculture will yield better results
agricultural policy and project documents more quickly if they maximize the productive
still fail to consider basic questions about the potential of women by promoting gender
differences in the resources available to men equality.
and women, their roles and the constraints Women, like men, can be considered
they face – and how these differences might “productive resources”, but they are also
be relevant to the proposed intervention. citizens who have an equal claim with men

4 TH E S TAT E O F F O O D AN D A G R I C U L T U R E 2 0 1 0 – 1 1

BOX 1
Sex versus gender

The concepts of “sex” and “gender” men and women (Moser, 1989). Being
can be confusing, not least because socially determined, however, this
even the experts sometimes use them distribution can be changed through
inconsistently. Sex refers to the innate conscious social action, including public
biological categories of male or female. policy. Every society is marked by gender
Gender refers to the social roles and differences, but these vary widely by
identities associated with what it means culture and can change dramatically over
to be a man or a woman. Gender roles are time. Sex is biology. Gender is sociology.
shaped by ideological, religious, ethnic, Sex is fixed. Gender roles change.
economic and cultural factors and are a
key determinant of the distribution of
responsibilities and resources between Source: Quisumbing, 1996.

on the protections, opportunities and empirical evidence from many different
services provided by their governments countries shows that female farmers are just
and the international community. Gender as efficient as their male counterparts, but
equality is a Millennium Development Goal they have less land and use fewer inputs, so
(MDG) in its own right, and it is directly they produce less. The potential gains that
related to the achievement of the MDG could be achieved by closing the gender
targets on reducing extreme poverty and gap in input use are estimated in this report
hunger. Clear synergies exist between the in terms of agricultural yields, agricultural
gender-equality and hunger-reduction goals. production, food security and broader
Agricultural policy-makers and development aspects of economic and social welfare.
practitioners have an obligation to ensure Because many of the constraints faced by
that women are able to participate fully in, women are socially determined, they can
and benefit from, the process of agricultural change. What is more, external pressures
development. At the same time, promoting often serve as a catalyst for women to take
gender equality in agriculture can help on new roles and responsibilities that can
reduce extreme poverty and hunger. Equality improve their productivity and raise their
for women would be good for agricultural status within households and communities.
development, and agricultural development For example, the growth of modern supply
should also be good for women. chains for high-value agricultural products
The roles and status of women in is creating significant opportunities – and
agriculture and rural areas vary widely challenges – for women in on-farm and off-
by region, age, ethnicity and social class farm employment. Other forces for social
and are changing rapidly in some parts and economic change can also translate into
of the world. Policy-makers, donors and opportunities for women.
development practitioners need information Gender-aware policy support and well-
and analysis that reflect the diversity of the designed development projects can help
contributions women make and the specific close the gender gap. Given existing
challenges they are confronted with in order inequities, it is not enough that policies be
to make gender-aware decisions about the gender-neutral; overcoming the constraints
sector. faced by women requires much more.
Despite the diversity in the roles and Reforms aimed at eliminating discrimination
status of women in agriculture, the evidence and promoting equal access to productive
and analysis presented in this report confirm resources can help ensure that women – and
that women face a surprisingly consistent men – are equally prepared to cope with
gender gap in access to productive assets, the challenges and to take advantage of
inputs and services. A large body of the opportunities arising from the changes


5
shaping the rural economy. Closing the farmers and estimates the gains that could
gender gap in agriculture will benefit be achieved by closing the gender gap in
women, the agriculture and rural sectors, agricultural input use. Potential gains in
and society as a whole. The gains will vary agricultural yields, agricultural production,
widely according to local circumstances, but food security and broader aspects of
they are likely to be greater where women economic and social welfare are assessed.
are more involved in agriculture and face the Chapter 5 advances specific policies and
most severe constraints. programmes that can help close the gender
While it seems obvious that closing the gap in agriculture and rural employment.
gender gap would be beneficial, evidence The focus is on interventions that alleviate
to substantiate this potential has been constraints on agricultural productivity and
lacking. This edition of The State of Food rural development.
and Agriculture has several goals: to bring Chapter 6 provides broader
the best available empirical evidence to recommendations for closing the gender gap
bear on the contributions women make and for development.
the constraints they face in agricultural and
rural enterprises in different regions of the
world; to demonstrate how the gender gap Key messages of the report
limits agricultural productivity, economic
development and human well-being; to • Women make essential contributions to
evaluate critically interventions aimed at agriculture in developing countries, but
reducing the gender gap and to recommend their roles differ significantly by region
practical steps that national governments and are changing rapidly in some areas.
and the international community can take Women comprise, on average, 43 percent
to promote agricultural development by of the agricultural labour force in
empowering women. developing countries, ranging from
20 percent in Latin America to 50 percent
in Eastern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.
Structure of the report and key Their contribution to agricultural work
messages varies even more widely depending on
the specific crop and activity.
Chapter 2 provides a survey of the roles • Women in agriculture and rural areas
and status of women in agriculture and have one thing in common across
rural areas in different parts of the world. regions: they have less access than
It brings the best, most comprehensive men to productive resources and
available evidence to bear on a number opportunities. The gender gap is found
of controversial questions that are both for many assets, inputs and services
conceptually and empirically challenging. – land, livestock, labour, education,
It focuses on women’s contributions extension and financial services, and
as farmers and agricultural workers technology – and it imposes costs on the
and examines their status in terms of agriculture sector, the broader economy
poverty, hunger and nutrition, and rural and society as well as on women
demographics. It also looks at the ways in themselves.
which the transformation of agriculture and • Closing the gender gap in agriculture
the emergence of high-value marketing would generate significant gains for
chains are creating challenges and the agriculture sector and for society.
opportunities for women. If women had the same access to
Chapter 3 documents the constraints productive resources as men, they
facing women in agriculture across a range could increase yields on their farms by
of assets: land, livestock, farm labour, 20–30 percent. This could raise total
education, extension services, financial agricultural output in developing
services and technology. countries by 2.5–4 percent, which could
Chapter 4 surveys the economic evidence in turn reduce the number of hungry
on the productivity of male and female people in the world by 12–17 percent.


The potential gains would vary by region resources, education, extension and
depending on how many women are financial services, and labour markets;
currently engaged in agriculture, how -- investing in labour-saving and
much production or land they control, productivity-enhancing technologies
and how wide a gender gap they face. and infrastructure to free women’s
• Policy interventions can help close the time for more productive activities;
gender gap in agriculture and rural labour and
markets. Priority areas for reform include: -- facilitating the participation of women
-- eliminating discrimination against in flexible, efficient and fair rural
women in access to agricultural labour markets.


7
2. Women’s work

Women make essential contributions to participation in the labour force has a
agriculture and rural economic activities in positive impact on economic growth (Klasen
all developing country regions.1 Their roles and Lamanna, 2009).
vary considerably among and within regions
and are changing rapidly in many parts
of the world where economic and social Women in agriculture
forces are transforming the agriculture
sector. The emergence of contract farming Women work in agriculture as farmers on
and modern supply chains for high-value their own account, as unpaid workers on
agricultural products, for example, present family farms and as paid or unpaid labourers
different opportunities and challenges on other farms and agricultural enterprises.
for women than they do for men. These They are involved in both crop and livestock
differences derive from the different roles production at subsistence and commercial
and responsibilities of women and the levels. They produce food and cash crops and
constraints that they face. manage mixed agricultural operations often
Rural women often manage complex involving crops, livestock and fish farming.
households and pursue multiple livelihood All of these women are considered part of
strategies. Their activities typically include the agricultural labour force.2
producing agricultural crops, tending Based on the latest internationally
animals, processing and preparing food, comparable data, women comprise an
working for wages in agricultural or other average of 43 percent of the agricultural
rural enterprises, collecting fuel and water, labour force of developing countries. The
engaging in trade and marketing, caring female share of the agricultural labour
for family members and maintaining their force ranges from about 20 percent in Latin
homes (see Box 2 for some of the frequently America to almost 50 percent in Eastern and
asked questions on the roles and status Southeastern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa
of women in agriculture). Many of these (Figure 1). The regional averages in Figure
activities are not defined as “economically 1 mask wide variations within and among
active employment” in national accounts countries (see Annex tables A3 and A4).
but they are all essential to the well-being Women in sub-Saharan Africa have
of rural households (see Box 3, page 14, relatively high overall labour-force
for a discussion of women’s household participation rates and the highest average
responsibilities). agricultural labour-force participation
Women often face gender-specific rates in the world. Cultural norms in the
challenges to full participation in the region have long encouraged women to be
labour force, which may require policy economically self-reliant and traditionally
interventions beyond those aimed at give women substantial responsibility for
promoting economic growth and the agricultural production in their own right.
efficiency of rural labour markets. Policies Regional data for sub-Saharan Africa conceal
can influence the economic incentives wide differences among countries. The share
and social norms that determine whether of women in the agricultural labour force
women work, the types of work they
perform and whether it is considered an 2
The agricultural labour force includes people who are
economic activity, the stock of human working or looking for work in formal or informal jobs and
capital they accumulate and the levels in paid or unpaid employment in agriculture. That includes
self-employed women as well as women working on family
of pay they receive. Increasing female
farms. It does not include domestic chores such as fetching
water and firewood, preparing food and caring for children
1
The material in this chapter is based on FAO (2010a). and other family members.


BOX 2
Frequently asked questions about women in agriculture

Question 1: How much of the agricultural Question 3: Do women have less access
labour in the developing world is than men to agricultural resources and
performed by women? inputs?
Answer: Women comprise 43 percent Answer: Yes, this is one generalization
of the agricultural labour force, on about women in agriculture that holds
average, in developing countries; this true across countries and contexts:
figure ranges from around 20 percent in compared with their male counterparts,
Latin America to 50 percent in parts of female farmers in all regions control less
Africa and Asia, but it exceeds 60 percent land and livestock, make far less use of
in only a few countries (FAO, 2010a). improved seed varieties and purchased
Critics argue that labour force statistics inputs such as fertilizers, are much less
underestimate the contribution of women likely to use credit or insurance, have
to agricultural work because women lower education levels and are less likely
are less likely to declare themselves as to have access to extension services (see
employed in agriculture and they work Chapter 3).
longer hours than men (Beneria, 1981),
but evidence from time-use surveys does Question 4: Do women and girls comprise
not suggest that women perform most of the majority of the world’s poor people?
the agricultural labour in the developing Answer: Poverty is normally measured
world (see Chapter 2). in terms of income or consumption at
the household level, not for individuals,
Question 2: What share of the world’s so separate poverty rates for men and
food is produced by women? women cannot be calculated. Females
Answer: This question cannot be answered could be overrepresented among the
in any empirically rigorous way because poor if female-headed households are
of conceptual ambiguities and data poorer than male-headed households
limitations. Different definitions of “food” (see Question 6) or if significant anti-
and “production” would yield different female bias exists within households (see
answers to the question and, more Question 7). Females may be poorer than
importantly, food production requires males if broader measures of poverty are
many resources – land, labour, capital – considered, such as access to productive
controlled by men and women who work resources (see Question 3).
cooperatively in most developing countries,
so separating food production by gender is Question 5: Do women face discrimination
not very meaningful (Doss, 2010). in rural labour markets?

ranges from 36 percent in Côte d’Ivoire and where the female share of the agricultural
the Niger to over 60 percent in Lesotho, labour force has increased slightly since 1980
Mozambique and Sierra Leone. A number of to almost 48 percent. The share of women
countries have seen substantial increases in in the agricultural labour force in most
the female share of the agricultural labour other countries in the region has remained
force in recent decades due to a number fairly steady at between 40 and 50 percent,
of reasons, including conflict, HIV/AIDS and although it is substantially lower and
migration. declining in some countries such as Malaysia
Women in Eastern and Southeastern Asia and the Philippines.
also make very substantial contributions to The Southern Asian average is dominated
the agricultural labour force, almost as high by India, where the share of women in the
on average as in sub-Saharan Africa. The agricultural labour force has remained steady
regional average is dominated by China, at just over 30 percent. This masks changes


9

Answer: In most countries and in keeping Question 7: Are women and girls
with global figures, women in rural areas more likely than men and boys to be
who work for wages are more likely than undernourished?
men to hold seasonal, part-time and low- Answer: A positive answer to this
wage jobs and (controlling for education, statement is not supported by available
age and industry) women receive lower evidence, and generalizations are difficult
wages for the same work (see Chapter 2). to make. The limited evidence available
suggests that this may be true in Asia,
Question 6: Are female-headed while it is not true in Africa. More sex-
households the poorest of the poor? disaggregated data of better quality on
Answer: Data from 35 nationally anthropometric and other indicators of
representative surveys for 20 countries malnutrition are needed to arrive at clear
analysed by FAO show that female- conclusions. There is, however, evidence
headed households are more likely to be that girls are much more vulnerable to
poor than male-headed households in transitory income shocks than boys (Baird,
some countries but the opposite is true Friedman and Schady, 2007).
in other countries – so it is not possible to
generalize. Data limitations also make it Question 8: Are women more likely than
impossible to distinguish systematically men to spend additional income on their
between households headed by women children?
who are single, widowed or divorced (de Answer: A very large body of research
jure female heads) and those who are from many countries around the world
associated with an adult male who supports confirms that putting more income in
the family through remittances and social the hands of women yields beneficial
networks (de facto female heads). It is results for child nutrition, health and
likely that the former are more likely to education. Other measures – such as
be poor than the latter (Anríquez, 2010). improving education – that increase
There is also evidence to suggest that rural women’s influence within the household
female-headed households were more are also associated with better outcomes
vulnerable than males during the food price for children. Exceptions exist, of course,
shock of 2008 because they spend a larger but empowering women is a well-proven
proportion of household income on food strategy for improving children’s well-
and because they were less able to respond being (see Chapter 4).
by increasing food production (Zezza et al.,
2008). Again, these results vary by country.

in other countries where the female share participation in the region are found in
of the agricultural labour force appears to Jordan, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and the
have increased dramatically, such as Pakistan Syrian Arab Republic.
where it has almost tripled since 1980, to The countries of Latin America have high
30 percent, and Bangladesh where women overall female labour-force participation
now exceed 50 percent of the agricultural rates, but much lower participation in
labour force. agriculture than those in other developing
The female share of the agricultural labour country regions. This pattern reflects
force in the Near East and North Africa relatively high female education levels
appears to have risen substantially, from (see Chapter 4), economic growth and
30 percent in 1980 to almost 45 percent. diversification, and cultural norms that
Some of the highest and fastest-growing support female migration to service jobs
rates of female agricultural labour force in urban areas. Just over 20 percent of the


FIGURE 1
Female share of the agricultural labour force

Percentage
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Eastern and Southeastern Asia Latin America and the Caribbean
Near East and North Africa Southern Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa

Note: The female share of the agricultural labour force is calculated as the total number of women economically active
in agriculture divided by the total population economically active in agriculture. Regional averages are weighted
by population.
Source: FAO, 2010b. See Annex table A4.

agricultural labour force in Latin America Time-use surveys attempt to provide a
was female in 2010, slightly higher than complete account of how men and women
in 1980. The South American countries of allocate their time.3 Such studies generally
the Plurinational State of Bolivia, Brazil, are not nationally representative and are
Colombia, Ecuador and Peru dominate both not directly comparable because they usually
the average and the rising trend, while cover small samples, report on different
many countries in Central America and the types of activities (that are not always clearly
Caribbean have seen declining shares of specified) and use different methodologies.
women in the agricultural labour force. Despite these caveats, a summary of the
Although in some countries sex- evidence from studies that specify time use
disaggregated data collection has improved by agricultural activity suggests interesting
over recent decades, some researchers patterns.
have raised concerns as to the validity of Time-use surveys that cover all agricultural
agricultural labour-force statistics as a activities (Figure 2) reveal considerable
measure of women’s work in agriculture variation across countries, and sometimes
(Beneria, 1981; Deere, 2005). Women’s within countries, but the data are broadly
participation in the agricultural labour force similar to the labour force statistics discussed
may underestimate the amount of work above. In Africa, estimates of the time
women do because women are less likely contribution of women to agricultural
than men to define their activities as work,
they are less likely to report themselves 3
It is commonly claimed that women perform
as being engaged in agriculture and they 60–80 percent of the agricultural labour in developing
work, on average, longer hours than men countries (UNECA, 1972; World Bank, FAO and IFAD,
2009). The evidence from time-use surveys and agricultural
– so even if fewer women are involved labour-force statistics does not support this general
they may contribute more total time to the statement, although women do comprise over 60 percent
sector. of the agricultural labour force in some countries.


11
FIGURE 2
Proportion of labour in all agricultural activities that is supplied by women

Gambia

United Republic of Tanzania

Burkina Faso

Nigeria

Zambia (1)

Zambia (2)

Cameroon (Centre–South)

Cameroon (Yassa of Campo,
Southwest)
Cameroon (Mvae of Campo,
Southwest)

Niger

Togo

Ghana

India/West Bengal

India

India/Rajasthan

Nepal

China

Peru (1)

Peru (2)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Percentage of labour supplied by women

Africa Asia Latin America

Note: Only the survey for India is nationally representative.
Sources (from top to bottom): Gambia: von Braun and Webb, 1989; United Republic of Tanzania: Fontana and Natali, 2008;
Burkina Faso: Saito, Mekonnen and Spurling, 1994; Nigeria: Rahji and Falusi, 2005; Zambia (1): Saito, Mekonnen and
Spurling, 1994; Zambia (2): Kumar, 1994; Cameroon, Centre–South: Leplaideur, 1978, cited by Charmes, 2006: Cameroon
(Yasssa of Campo, Southwest): Charmes, 2006, based on Pasquet and Koppert, 1993 and 1996; Cameroon (Mvae of Campo,
Southwest): Charmes, 2006, based on Pasquet and Koppert, 1993 and 1996; Niger: Baanante, Thompson and Acheampong,
1999; Togo: Baanante, Thompson and Acheampong, 1999; Ghana: Baananate, Thompson and Acheampong, 1999; India
(West Bengal): Jain, 1996; India: Singh and Sengupta, 2009; India (Rajasthan): Jain, 1996; Nepal: Joshi, 2000; China: de
Brauw et al., 2008; Peru (1): Deere, 1982; Peru (2): Jacoby, 1992.


activities ranges from about 30 percent in is a predominantly female activity, but
the Gambia to 60–80 percent in different women are typically involved to some extent
parts of Cameroon. In Asia, estimates range in all activities except ploughing.
from 32 percent in India to over 50 percent Studies from Indonesia reveal greater
in China. The range is lower in Latin America, involvement of women in upland rice
but exceeds 30 percent in some parts of Peru. production than that of wet rice and in the
A striking degree of within-country variation management of young plantation crops
is shown by the study for India. While this such as cinnamon and rubber rather than
nationally representative study indicates that the same crops at maturity. As noted above,
the national average for women’s share of the data for India hide wide variations
total time-use in agriculture is 32 percent, between West Bengal and Rajasthan, but
the share ranges from less than 10 percent in both areas, younger women contribute
in West Bengal to more than 40 percent in a higher share of the total time provided
Rajasthan. in agriculture by their age group than
These studies also reveal that female time- older women do in theirs. In Rajasthan,
use in agriculture varies widely depending for example, girls aged between 14 and 19
on the crop and the phase of the production contribute up to 60 percent of the total time
cycle, the age and ethnic group of the spent on agriculture by their age group (Jain,
women in question, the type of activity and 1996). Two separate studies are reported
a number of other factors (Figure 3). Planting each for Peru and Zambia, and differences

FIGURE 3
Proportion of labour for selected crops that is supplied by women

Young rubber

Mature rubber

Young cinnamon

Mature cinnamon

Wet rice

Upland rice

Rice

Rice

Rice

Tomatoes

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Percentage of labour supplied by women

Indonesia Bangladesh Philippines

Viet Nam Dominican Republic

Sources (from top to bottom): Indonesia (young rubber): Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001a; Indonesia (mature rubber):
Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001a; Indonesia (young cinnamon): Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001a; Indonesia (mature cinnamon):
Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001a; Indonesia (wet rice): Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001a; Indonesia (upland rice): Quisumbing
and Otsuka, 2001a; Bangladesh: Thompson and Sanabria, 2010; Philippines: Estudillo, Quisumbing and Otsuka, 2001;
Viet Nam: Paris and Chi, 2005; Dominican Republic: Raynolds, 2002.


13
reflect different time periods and locations Evidence shows, however, that female
within the countries. farmers are largely excluded from modern
Time-use studies permit a rich analysis contract-farming arrangements because they
of what men and women do in agriculture lack secure control over land, family labour
and how their roles may differ by crop, and other resources required to guarantee
location, management structure, age and delivery of a reliable flow of produce. For
ethnic group. They offer policy-relevant example, women comprise fewer than
information about where, when and how 10 percent of the farmers involved in
to target interventions aimed at women smallholder contract-farming schemes in
and how to bring men into the process the Kenyan fresh fruit and vegetable export
constructively. Given the variation in gender sector (Dolan, 2001), and only 1 of a sample
roles in agriculture, generalizations about of 59 farmers contracted in Senegal to
time use from one region to another are produce French beans for the export sector
not appropriate. Studies that consider the was a woman (Maertens and Swinnen, 2009).
gender roles within their specific geographic While men control the contracts, however,
and cultural context can provide practical much of the farm work done on contracted
guidance for policy-makers and practitioners plots is performed by women as family
involved in technology investments, labourers. For example, in 70 percent of the
extension services, post-harvest activities and cases of sugar contract-farming in South
marketing interventions. Africa, the principal farmer on the sugar-
One generalization that does hold is cane plots is a woman (Porter and Philips-
that women usually allocate time to food Horward, 1997). Women work longer hours
preparation, child care and other household than men in vegetable contract-farming
responsibilities in addition to the time schemes controlled by male farmers in
they spend in agriculture (see Box 3). In the Indian Punjab (Singh, 2003). In a large
most societies, household responsibilities contract-farming scheme involving thousands
are divided along gender lines, although of farmers in China, women – while excluded
these norms differ by culture and over time. from signing contracts themselves – perform
Depending on the household structure and the bulk of the work related to contract
size, these tasks may be extremely time- farming (Eaton and Shepherd, 2001). Women
intensive. Across regions, time allocation may not be well compensated as unpaid
studies have shown that women work family labour in contract-farming schemes
significantly more than men if care-giving is (Maertens and Swinnen, 2009).
included in the calculations (Ilahi, 2000). The Evidence is mixed regarding whether
combination of commitments often means contract farming increases overall household
that women are more time-constrained than incomes or creates conflicts between the
men (Blackden and Wodon, 2006). production of cash crops and food crops.
For example, Dolan (2001) argues that the
Women in modern contract-farming4 growth of high-value horticulture supply
One noteworthy feature of modern chains has been detrimental for rural
agricultural value chains is the growth of women in Kenya because land and labour
contract farming or out-grower schemes for resources that were traditionally used by
high-value produce through which large- women to cultivate vegetables for home
scale agroprocessing firms seek to ensure consumption and sale in local markets
a steady supply of quality produce. Such have been appropriated by men for export
schemes can help small-scale farmers and vegetable production under contract. On
livestock producers overcome the technical the other hand, although their results are
barriers and transaction costs involved in not gender-specific, Minten, Randrianarison
meeting the increasingly stringent demands and Swinnen (2009), find that high-value
of urban consumers in domestic and vegetable contract-farming in Madagascar
international markets. leads to improved productivity for food (rice)
production through technology spillovers,
4
The material in this section is based on Maertens and thereby improving the availability of food
Swinnen (2009). in the household and shortening the lean


BOX 3
Women and unpaid household responsibilities

Women have primary responsibilities for Because of the gender-specific
household and child-rearing activities assignment of tasks, any change affecting
in most societies, although norms differ the family or the environment may
by culture and are changing over time. have different implications for men and
Time-use surveys across a wide range of women. HIV/AIDS, for example, has caused
countries estimate that women provide a significant increase in the time needed
85–90 percent of the time spent on to care for sick family members or the
household food preparation and that orphaned children of relatives (Addati
they are also usually responsible for child and Cassirer, 2008). Deforestation leads
care and other household chores. The women to travel increasing distances from
combined time burden of household the homestead to collect firewood (Kumar
chores and farm work is particularly severe and Hotchkiss, 1988; Nankhuni, 2004).
for women in Africa (Ilahi, 2000). Poor infrastructure and limited provision
Ghanaian women carry a much heavier of public services require Tanzanian
burden for household chores despite women in rural areas to spend long
working outside the home almost as much hours on water and fuel collection, food
as men (Brown, 1994). In Uganda, women preparation and other domestic and
cite the time they spend looking after child-care activities. Improving public
their families, working in their husbands’ infrastructure for water and fuel collection
gardens and producing food for their and food preparation (e.g. grain-milling
households as reasons for their inability to facilities) could free women in the United
expand production for the market (Ellis, Republic of Tanzania from a burden that
Manuel and Blackden, 2006). Women and represents 8 billion hours of unpaid work
girls in Ghana, the United Republic of per year, which is equivalent to the hours
Tanzania and Zambia are responsible for required for 4.6 million full-time jobs. The
about 65 percent of all transport activities same improvements would save time for
in rural households, such as collecting men also, but less: the time-equivalent of
firewood and water and carrying grain to 200 000 full-time jobs (Fontana and Natali,
the grinding mill (Malmberg-Calvo, 1994). 2008).

period or “hunger season”. Maertens and engaged in the sector. An estimated two-
Swinnen (2009) do not find evidence of thirds of poor livestock keepers, totalling
gender conflict over resources in the French approximately 400 million people, are
bean export sector in Senegal because women (Thornton et al., 2002). They share
households only allocate part of their land responsibility with men and children for the
and labour resources to bean production, care of animals, and particular species and
which occurs during the off-season and does types of activity are more associated with
not coincide with the main rainy season women than men. For example, women
when staple food crops and other subsistence often have a prominent role in managing
crops are cultivated. poultry (FAO, 1998; Guèye, 2000; Tung,
2005) and dairy animals (Okali and Mims,
Women as livestock keepers5 1998; Tangka, Jabbar and Shapiro, 2000)
Within pastoralist and mixed farming and in caring for other animals that are
systems, livestock play an important role in housed and fed within the homestead.
supporting women and in improving their When tasks are divided, men are more
financial situation, and women are heavily likely to be involved in constructing housing
and the herding of grazing animals, and
in marketing products if women’s mobility
5
The material in this section was prepared by FAO’s
Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department, Animal is constrained. The influence of women is
Production and Health Division. strong in the use of eggs, milk and poultry


15
meat for home consumption and they out of business. This is particularly evident
often have control over marketing these for pig and poultry owners (Rola et al., 2006)
products and the income derived from but is not confined to those species. Given
them. Perhaps for this reason, poultry and the more limited ability of women to start
small-scale dairy projects have been popular their own businesses, this implies that they
investments for development projects that will tend to become employees rather than
aim to improve the lot of rural women. In self-employed. In specialized activities such
some countries, small-scale pig production is as the production of day-old chicks, and in
also dominated by women. Female-headed slaughtering, processing and retail, women
households are as successful as male-headed are visible wherever painstaking semi-skilled
households in generating income from their work is to be done, but very little research
animals, although they tend to own smaller data are available about the extent of their
numbers of animals, probably because of involvement compared with that of men, or
labour constraints. Livestock ownership is their control over resources.
particularly attractive to women in societies
where access to land is restricted to men Women in fisheries and aquaculture6
(Bravo-Baumann, 2000). In 2008, nearly 45 million people worldwide
While the role of women in small-scale were directly engaged, full time or part time,
livestock production is well recognized, much in the fishery primary sector.7 In addition, an
less has been documented about women’s estimated 135 million people are employed
engagement in intensive production and in the secondary sector, including post-
the market chains associated with large harvest activities. While comprehensive data
commercial enterprises. Demand for livestock are not available on a sex-disaggregated
products, fuelled by rising incomes, has basis, case studies suggest that women
grown much faster than the demand for crop may comprise up to 30 percent of the total
staples during the past 40 years – particularly employment in fisheries, including primary
in Asia and Latin America – and this trend is and secondary activities.
expected to continue. While pastoralist and Information provided to FAO from 86
small-scale mixed-farming systems continue countries indicates that in 2008, 5.4 million
to be important in meeting the needs of women worked as fishers and fish farmers
rural consumers, the demands of growing in the primary sector. This represents
urban populations are increasingly supplied 12 percent of the total. In two major
with meat, milk and eggs from intensive producing countries, China and India,
commercial systems. This has implications women represented a share of 21 percent
for the engagement of women in the and 24 percent, respectively, of all fishers and
livestock sector because of the different fish farmers.
roles, responsibilities and access to resources Women have rarely engaged in commercial
that are evident within different scales of offshore and long-distance capture
production system and at different points on fisheries because of the vigorous work
the production and marketing chain. involved but also because of their domestic
The available evidence suggests that the responsibilities and/or social norms. They
role of women in meeting these changing are more commonly occupied in subsistence
demands may diminish, for two reasons. and commercial fishing from small boats and
The first is that when livestock enterprises canoes in coastal or inland waters. Women
scale up, the control over decisions and also contribute as entrepreneurs and provide
income, and sometimes the entire enterprise, labour before, during and after the catch
often shifts to men. This is not a universal in both artisanal and commercial fisheries.
phenomenon – in Viet Nam, for example, For example, in West Africa, the so called
many medium-sized duck-breeding “Fish Mamas” play a major role: they usually
enterprises are managed by women – but it
is common and can be explained by women’s 6
The material in this section was prepared by FAO’s
limited access to land and credit. The second Fisheries and Aquaculture Department.
7
FAO’s Fisheries and Aquaculture Department regularly
important factor is that all smallholders
collects employment statistics in fisheries and aquaculture
face challenges when the livestock sector related to the primary sector only. The data therefore
intensifies and concentrates and many go exclude post-harvest activities.


own capital and are directly and vigorously IFAD, 2009). Studies conducted by FAO in
involved in the coordination of the fisheries Africa and Europe indicate that women do
chain, from production to the sale of fish. not hold senior or policy-making positions
Studies of women in aquaculture, in the sector. Rather, they are primarily
especially in Asia where aquaculture employed in administrative and support
has a long tradition, indicate that the roles, with professional women foresters
contribution of women in labour is often tending to have specialist roles (e.g. research)
greater than men’s, although macro-level or first-line junior management positions.
sex-disaggregated data on this topic is There is limited information on the numbers
almost non-existent. Women are reported and roles of women in contracting or self-
to constitute 33 percent of the rural employed forestry work (FAO, 2006a, 2007).
aquaculture workforce in China, 42 percent The studies indicate that even though women
in Indonesia and 80 percent in Viet Nam are still underrepresented in the industry,
(Kusabe and Kelker, 2001). examples of good practice are emerging,
The most significant role played by women especially in Europe (FAO, 2006a). This shows
in both artisanal and industrial fisheries is that concerted and sustained commitment
at the processing and marketing stages, and planning at senior organizational levels
where they are very active in all regions. can result in quantifiable improvements in
In some countries, women have become the number of professional women foresters
significant entrepreneurs in fish processing; employed and the level of seniority they can
in fact, most fish processing is performed by attain.
women, either in their own household-level
industries or as wage labourers in the large-
scale processing industry. Women in rural labour markets

Women in forestry About 70 percent of men and 40 percent
Women contribute to both the formal and of women in developing countries are
informal forestry sectors in many significant employed (Figure 4A). Male employment
ways. They play roles in agroforestry, rates range from more than 60 percent in
watershed management, tree improvement, the Near East and North Africa to almost
and forest protection and conservation. 80 percent in sub-Saharan African. Female
Forests also often represent an important employment rates vary more widely across
source of employment for women, especially regions, from about 15 percent in the Near
in rural areas. From nurseries to plantations, East and North Africa to over 60 percent in
and from logging to wood processing, sub-Saharan Africa.
women make up a notable proportion of the In Asia and in sub-Saharan Africa, women
labour force in forest industries throughout who are employed are more likely to be
the world. However, although women employed in agriculture than in other
contribute substantially to the forestry sectors (Figure 4B). Almost 70 percent of
sector, their roles are not fully recognized employed women in Southern Asia and
and documented, their wages are not more than 60 percent of employed women
equal to those of men and their working in sub-Saharan Africa work in agriculture.
conditions tend to be poor (World Bank, FAO Furthermore, in most developing country
and IFAD, 2009). regions, women who are employed are just
The Global Forest Resources Assessment as likely, or even more likely, than men to
2010 reports that the forestry sector be in agriculture. The major exception is
worldwide employed approximately Latin America, where agriculture provides a
11 million people in 2005; however, sex- relatively small source of female employment
disaggregated data on the number of and women are less likely than men to work
women employed by the sector are not in the sector.
available on a comprehensive basis (FAO, In most developing countries, a relatively
2010c). Evidence from developing countries small share of the population works for a
suggests that women are often employed in wage, and women are less likely to do so
menial jobs in sawmills, plantation nurseries than men (World Bank, 2007a). For rural
and logging camps (World Bank, FAO and areas, data collected by the Rural Income


17
FIGURE 4
Employment by sector

A - Employed population as a share of total adult population, by sex and sector
Percentage of total male
and female population, respectively
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females
Developing Eastern and Latin America Near East and Southern Asia Sub-Saharan
countries Southeastern and the North Africa Africa
Asia Caribbean

B - Distribution of male and female employment, by sector
Percentage of male
and female employment, respectively
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females
Developing Eastern and Latin America Near East and Southern Asia Sub-Saharan
countries Southeastern and the North Africa Africa
Asia Caribbean

Agriculture Industry Services

Note: The data cover only a subset of the countries in each region. Deﬁnitions of adult labour force differ by country,
but usually refer to the population aged 15 and above.
Source: ILO, 2009.

Generating Activities (RIGA) project show For example, almost 15 percent of men
that the gender gap in formal and informal but fewer than 4 percent of women are
wage employment is large (Figure 5).8 employed for wages in Ghana. The gap is
even wider in some other countries, such as
8
Rural Income Generating Activities (RIGA) is a FAO project Bangladesh, where 24 percent of rural men
that has created an internationally comparable database of and only 3 percent of rural women work in
rural household income sources from existing household living wage employment. A similar pattern holds in
standards surveys for more than 27 countries (FAO, 2010d).
Latin America also; for example, in Ecuador
Most of the surveys used by the RIGA project were developed
by national statistical offices in conjunction the World Bank as almost 30 percent of rural men and only
part of its Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS). 9 percent of rural women receive a wage.


FIGURE 5
Participation in rural wage employment, by gender

Ecuador
Guatemala
Nicaragua
Panama

Bangladesh
Indonesia
Nepal
Tajikistan
Viet Nam

Ghana
Malawi
Nigeria

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Percentage of adult population working for a wage

Women Men

Source: FAO, 2010d.

Even when rural women are in wage Differences in male and female
employment, they are more likely to be employment and wage patterns may have
in part-time, seasonal and/or low-paying multiple causes. Because women in many
jobs. In Malawi, for example, 90 percent of countries have less education and work
women and 66 percent of men work part- experience than men, they may earn a lower
time (Figure 6A). In Nepal, 70 percent of wage. Furthermore, having less education
women and 45 percent of men work part- and experience reduces their bargaining
time. This pattern is less pronounced in Latin power so they may be more likely to accept
America than in other regions. low wages and irregular working conditions
Rural wage employment is characterized (Kantor, 2008). Evidence from a number of
by a high prevalence of seasonal jobs studies confirms that women, on average,
for both men and women, but in most are paid less than men even for equivalent
countries women are more likely than men jobs and comparable levels of education
to be employed seasonally (Figure 6B). For and experience (Ahmed and Maitra, 2010;
example, in Ecuador, almost 50 percent of Fontana, 2009). At the same time, because
women but fewer than 40 percent of men women face significant time constraints
hold seasonal jobs. because of family obligations, they may prefer
Similarly, rural wage-earning women are part-time or seasonal jobs that are typically
more likely than men to hold low-wage jobs lower paid. Social norms that confine women
(Figure 6C), defined as paying less than the to certain sectors or phases of the supply
median agricultural wage. In Malawi, more chain can further limit their opportunities for
than 60 percent of women are in low-wage career growth and reinforce these sectors as
jobs compared with fewer than 40 percent low-pay and low-status occupations.
of men. The gap is even wider in Bangladesh, Average male wages are higher than
where 80 percent of women and 40 percent of average female wages in rural and urban
men have low-wage jobs. The only exception areas of the countries covered by the
to this pattern was found in Panama. RIGA dataset (Figure 7). For example, in

Women in Agriculture - Making a Strong Case for Investing in Women

Women in Agriculture - Making a Strong Case for Investing in Women

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