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Anatomy and physiology for yoga students
1. Anatomy and Physiology for
Yoga Students worldwide
Dr Shashikant
drshashikantsk@gmail.com
Basic
2.
3.
4. Cell Theory
β’ Term βcellβ was coined in 1665 by Robert
Hooke when he looked at a slice of dried
cork. He also observed that:
1. All living things are comprised of cells.
2. Cells are the smallest βlivingβ unit in an
organisms.
3. Cells come from previously existing cells.
8. Levels of Organization
Remember, the human body is organized in several levels, from the
simplest to the most complex. . .
Cells β the basic unit of life
Tissues β clusters of cells performing a similar function
Organs β made of tissues that perform one specific
function
Organ Systems β groups of organs that perform a
specific purpose in the human body
***The purpose of the 11 organ systems is for the human body to
maintain homeostasis.
9. Cell Organization
β’ The cell includes two basic parts:
1. Cell Membrane (outer covering of cell)
2. Cytoplasm
β’ Cytosol (fluid portion of the
cytoplasm)
β’ Organelles (cell βorgansβ or
functional parts)
10. Cell Membrane
β’ Outer boundary
β’ Physical
β’ Chemical
β’ Comprised of two layers of lipid (fat)
β Outer and inner layers
β’ Proteins
β’ Proteins give the cell its unique βpersonalityβ
or function
23. Mitochondria
β’ Inner membrane folded into cristae
β’ Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) produced on
cristae.
β’ ATP is high energy compound.
β’ ATP only produced in mitochondria.
25. Nucleus
β’ Control center of cell
β’ Contains DNA/chromosomes
β’ Genetic repository for ~ 35,000 genes
β’ Genes control the synthesis of proteins in
each cell.
β’ Red blood cells donβt have a nucleus.
β’ Skeletal muscle cells have multiple nuclei.
26. β’ Acid
solutions have a high
hydrogen ion concentration
β’ Base or alkaline
solutions have a low
hydrogen ion concentration
27. β’ All organisms are composed of energy and matter.
Matter and energy work together to build and run the
human body.
β’ Elements are bonded together to form a wide array
of structural and functional molecules. Molecules
need a constant supply of energy to carry out their
roles.
β’ Humans are primarily composed of organic
molecules called biochemicals. It is necessary to
take in appropriate portions of the biochemicals
needed to replace those that are used up.
29. Superficial Anatomy
Generally consider body in Anatomical
Position while studied
Two other positions: supine and prone
Anatomical Directions
Anterior vs. ?; medial vs. ?; superior vs. ? . . . Etc. . . .
Proximal vs. distal
34. Body Planes
β’ Sagittal plane - Divides the body
into right and left halves.
β’ Transverse (Horizontal) plane -
Divides the body into superior
and inferior halves.
β’ Frontal (Coronal) plane - Divides
the body into anterior or ventral
and posterior or dorsal halves.
35.
36. Orientation Terminology
β’ Left Right
β’ Superior Inferior
β’ Anterior Posterior
β’ Ventral Dorsal
β’ Proximal Distal
β’ Medial Lateral
β’ Superficial Deep
β’ Adduct Abduct
β’ Cranial Caudal
42. Structure of Cell
β’ Cell is a structural & Functional unit of human body, capable of carrying
out functions of life independently.
β Nucleus
β Cytoplasm
β Cell Membrane
Functions of Cell
- Production of Bio-Energy
- Storage
- Multiplication
- Specific function according to location
43.
44. Systems
β’ Muscular System
β’ Skeletal System
β’ Digestive System
β’ Respiratory System
β’ Circulatory System
β’ Excretory System
β’ Reproductive System (Male & Female)
β’ Nervous System
β’ Endocrine System
45. Overview of Anatomy & Physiology
β’ Anatomy β the study of the structure of body
parts and their relationships to one another
β Gross or macroscopic
β Microscopic
β Developmental
β’ Physiology β the study of the function of the
bodyβs structural machinery [characteristics and
mechanisms that make it a living being.]
46. Gross Anatomy
β’ Regional β all structures in one part of the
body (such as the abdomen or leg)
β’ Systemic β gross anatomy of the body studied
by system
β’ Surface β study of internal structures as they
relate to the overlying skin
48. Developmental Anatomy
β’ Traces structural changes throughout life
β’ Embryology β study of developmental changes
of the body before birth
49. Physiology
β’ Considers the operation of specific organ
systems
β Renal β kidney function
β Neurophysiology β workings of the nervous
system
β Cardiovascular β operation of the heart and blood
vessels
β’ Focuses on the functions of the body, often at
the cellular or molecular level
50. Physiology
β’ Understanding physiology also requires a
knowledge of physics, which explains
electrical currents, blood pressure, and the
way muscle uses bone for movement
51. Principle of Complementarity
β’ An anatomical structure usually reflects its
function [Form follows function]
β’ What a structure can do depends on its
specific form
52. Levels of Structural Organization
β’ Chemical β atoms combined to form
molecules
β’ Cellular β cells are made of molecules
β’ Tissue β consists of similar types of cells
β’ Organ β made up of different types of tissues
β’ Organ system β consists of different organs
that work closely together
β’ Organismal β made up of the organ systems
53. Levels of Structural Organization
Smooth muscle cell
Molecules
2 Cellular level
Cells are made up of molecules Atoms
1 Chemical level
Atoms combine to
Smooth form molecules
muscle
tissue
Heart
3 Tissue level
Cardiovascular
Tissues consist of
system Blood
similar types of cells
vessels
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth Blood
muscle vessel
tissue (organ) 6 Organismal level
Connective The human organism is made
tissue up of many organ systems
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of different 5 Organ system level
types of tissues Organ systems consist of different organs that
work together closely
Figure 1.1
54. Organ Systems of the Body
β’ Integumentary system
β Forms the external body covering
β Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil
glands, hair, and nails
β Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes
vitamin D
55. Organ Systems of the Body
β’ Skeletal system
β Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments [with
the joints they make up]
β Protects and supports body organs
β Provides the framework for muscles
β Site of blood cell formation
β Stores minerals
56. Organ Systems of the Body
β’ Muscular system
β Composed of muscles and tendons
β Allows manipulation of the
environment, locomotion, and facial expression
β Maintains posture
β Produces heat
57. Organ Systems of the Body
β’ Nervous system
β Composed of the brain, spinal column, and nerves
β Is the fast-acting control system of the body
β Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and
glands
58. Organ Systems of the Body
β’ Cardiovascular system
β Composed of the heart and blood vessels
β The heart pumps blood
β The blood vessels transport blood throughout the
body
59. Organ Systems of the Body
β’ Lymphatic system
β Composed of red bone
marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and
lymphatic vessels
β Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and
returns it to blood
β Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream
β Houses white blood cells involved with immunity
60. Organ Systems of the Body
β’ Respiratory system
β Composed of the nasal
cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
β Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes
carbon dioxide
61. Organ Systems of the Body
β’ Digestive system
β Composed of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, and
liver
β Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter
the blood
β Eliminates indigestible foodstuffs as feces
62. Organ Systems of the Body
β’ Urinary system
β Composed of kidneys, ureters, urinary
bladder, and urethra
β Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body
β Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH balance of
the blood
63. Organ Systems of the Body
β’ Male reproductive system
β Composed of prostate
gland, penis, testes, scrotum, and ductus deferens
β Main function is the production of offspring
β Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones
β Ducts and glands deliver sperm to the female
reproductive tract
64. Organ Systems of the Body
β’ Female reproductive system
β Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine
tubes, uterus, and vagina
β Main function is the production of offspring
β Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
β Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization
and development of the fetus
β Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the
newborn
65. Organ Systems Interrelationships
β’ The integumentary system
protects the body from the
external environment
β’ Digestive and respiratory
systems, in contact with the
external environment, take in
nutrients and oxygen
β’ Nutrients and oxygen are
distributed by the blood
β’ Metabolic wastes are eliminated
by the urinary and respiratory
systems
Figure 1.2
67. Digestion is chemical and mechanical process on the
ingested food to prepare it for assimilation by the
body.
β’ Function of Digestive System
β Ingestion
β Chewing
β Swallowing
β Digestion
β Absorption
β Excretion of undigested food
68. β’ Organs of Digestive System
β Mouth
β Pharynx (Throat)
β Oesophagus (Food tube)
β Stomach
β Small intestine
β Large intestine
β Rectum
69. Layers of Digestive System
β’ Inner Epithelial layer
β Secretion of enzyme and mucus
β Soft and pink in colour
β’ Middle Muscular layer
β Outer layer (Longitudinal muscles)
β Inner layer (Circular muscle)
β Peristalsis (Segmental contraction)
β’ Outer Serous layer
β Protective function
β Diagram
70.
71. The Digestive System
Purpose: to convert food particles into simpler micro
molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream and
used by the body
Major Organs and their Functions:
Mouth β to chew and grind up food
-- saliva also begins the chemical breakdown
Esophagus β pipe connecting mouth to stomach (25cms)
Stomach β secretes an extraordinarily strong acid (pH = 2) that
leads to breakdown of food
-- once the food is broken down in the stomach and
mixed with digestive juices, it is called chyme
72. Pancreas β produces the hormone insulin that regulates
blood sugar levels
-- also help neutralize stomach acid
Liver β produces bile, which breaks down fats in foods
Gallbladder β pouch-like organ that stores bile for future use
Small Intestine β after digestion is complete, the chyme
enters the small intestine where it is absorbed into the
bloodstream
-- the chyme is propelled along by folded surfaces
called villi, on the intestine
Large Intestine β removes water from the chyme and gets the
waste ready for excretion
73. β’ Mouth
β Beginning of Digestive system
β Lips, teeth, gums, tongue.
β Palate (soft and hard), tonsils
β Opening of Salivary glands
β’ Teeth
β Total 32 in adults
β’ Tongue
β Functions
β’ Helps in mastication
β’ Mixing all saliva with food
β’ Swallowing
β’ Sensation of taste
β’ Speech
74. β’ Salivary glands
β 3 pairs
β’ Parotid in front of ear
β’ Submandibular below lower jaw
β’ Sublingual below tongue
β’ Saliva
β Secretion of salivary glands
β Secreted with ingestion, memory, smell of food
β Ptylin converts starch into sugar
β’ Pharynx (Throat)
β Posterior of nose, mouth & larynx
β Musculo membranous tube
75. β’ Swallowing
β Voluntary and Involuntary stages
β’ Voluntary
β Bolus formation
β By movement of tongue and cheeks
β Bolus pushed into pharynx
β’ Involuntary
β Soft palate raised up & closes nasal passage
β Glottis contracts and closes
β Larynx lifted upwards and forwards
β Food passes to Oesophagus
β Breathing ceases during this step
76. β’ Stomach
β Dilated part of Digestive system
β Lies in upper abdomen below diaphragm
β Slightly left to midline
β Upper opening connected to Oesophagus
β Lower opening connected to Duodenum
β Both remain closed during gastric digestion
β J shaped in standing position
β Elastic muscular bag with capacity of 2 liters
β 3 muscular layer- vertical, circular, oblique
77. β’ Functions of the Stomach
β Storage of food for 3 hours
β Partial digestion of proteins and fats
β Semi digested food from stomach enters the Duodenum
β’ Oesophagus
β 25cm long muscular tube
β From pharynx to stomach
β Behind trachea and in front of vertebral column
β Major part passes to Thorax
β Food passes to stomach by active muscular action
β Solid food reaches stomach in 7 to 8 seconds
β Liquids reaches stomach in 2 to 3 seconds
78. β’ Small intestine
β 6 to 7 meter long, 2.5cm diameter
β Lies in center of abdomen
β Divided into 3 parts
β’ First part β Duodenum
β’ Second part β Jejunum
β’ Third part β ileum
β’ Alkaline Secretions
β Protects from acid contents of stomach
β’ Small intestine
β Mucosa
β’ Deeply folded to increase the surface area
β’ Helps in absorption of food.
79. β’ Large intestine
β 1.5meter long, 5 to 6cm diameter
β Divided into 3 parts
β’ Right ascending colon
β’ Transverse colon
β’ Left descending colon
β’ Sigmoid Colon & Rectum
β Temporary storage of faeces
β Anus is guarded by external & internal sphincters
80. Liver
β’ Functions
β Synthesis of bile
β Formation of urea
β Detoxification of drugs
β Destruction of RBC
β Storage of excess glucose in form of glycogen
β Storage of Vitamin A & D
β Storage of Hemoglobin
β Manufacturing of blood proteins, albumin & globulin
β Manufacturing of prothrombin & fibrinogen
81. β’ Gall bladder
β Stores the liver bile (60ml)
β’ Pancreas
β Located in upper abdomen behind the stomach
β Right part in the C of Duodenum
β Extends to the left up to the spleen
β Manufactures digestive enzymes
β Manufactures insulin
84. The Excretory System
Purpose: to rid the body of wastes, including excess water and salts
Major Organs and Their Functions
Kidneys β the main organs of the excretory system
-- waste-laden blood enters the kidney and the kidney
filters out urea, excess water and other waste products, which
eventually travel out of the kidney as urine
-- eventually they travel through the ureter to the
urinary bladder
Rectum β solid (food) waste travels out of the body through
the rectum
85. β’ Excretion
β The process of expulsion of waste products & toxins out of the
body
β’ Excretory organs
β Urinary system
β Skin
β Large intestine
β Lung
β’ Organs of Urinary system
β Two kidneys
β Two ureters
β Urinary bladder
β Urethra
86. Skin β sweat glands remove excess water and salts from the body
Lungs β expel the waste gas carbon dioxide
The Excretory System
87. β’ Kidney
β Located at the backside of abdominal cavity, on
either side of vertebral column
β Bean shape
β Size- length 13cm, breadth 6cm,thichness 3cm
β Weight- 150gm
88. β’ Functions of kidney
β Expulsion of waste products and toxins
β Maintenance of water level in body
β To maintain reaction of blood
β Expulsion of toxic medicine
β To maintain balance of salts and minerals
β’ Functional unit of kidney β Nephron
β 10,00,000 in each kidney
β’ Ureters
β Starts from hilum up to urinary bladder
β 25cms long, 4mm wide
β Carries urine to urinary bladder by peristalsis
89.
90.
91. β’ Urinary bladder
β Muscular bag
β In the pelvis anterior to rectum in case of male
β In the pelvis anterior to uterus in case of female
β Collection of urine
β Sphincter of bladder voluntary control
β 300 to 900 ml storage capacity
β After 1000 ml voluntary control is lost
β’ Urethra
β Male urethra passes through penis, length 25cm
β Female urethra opens anterior to vagina, length 2.5 cm
92.
93. β’ Contents of urine
Daily filtration Actual excretion
Water 180 liter 1.5 liter
Salts 700 gm 15 gm
Glucose 170 gm 0
Urea 50 gm 30 gm
β’ Urine
β Daily output 1200 to 1500 ml
β 95 % water, 5 % salts & organic matter
β Urea, uric acid, salts of potassium, magnesium
and calcium
94.
95.
96. β’ Functions of skin
β Protection from injury
β Sensation of touch
β Regulation of body temperature
β Absorption of oil, ointments
β Excretion
β Regulation of water balance
β Production of Vitamin D
β To keep the skin & hair smooth, silky & shin
97. The Respiratory System
Purpose: to provide the body with a fresh supply of oxygen for
cellular respiration and remove the waste product carbon dioxide
Major Organs and Their Functions
Nose β internal entry and exit point for air
Pharynx β serves as a passage way for both air and food at the
back of the throat
Larynx β your βvoiceboxβ, as air passes over your vocal
chords, you speak
Trachea β the βwindpipeβ, or what connects your pharynx to your
lungs
-- a piece of skin, called the epiglottis, covers the trachea
when you swallow, preventing food from entering
98. Bronchi β the two large passageways that lead from the trachea to
your lungs (one for each lung)
-- the bronchi are further subdivided into bronchioles
-- eventually, the further subdivisions lead to tiny air
sacs called alveoli
-- alveoli are in clusters, like grapes
-- capillaries surrounding each alveolus is where
the exchange of gases with the blood occurs
The diaphragm is the muscle that causes you to breath
-- hiccups are involuntary contractions of the
diaphragm
99. Importance of Respiratory System
Sign of Life
The most Vital function
Respiration
is
INDEPENDENT
but can be controlled to some extent
(pranayama)
102. β’ Functions
β Supply of Oxygen
β To remove CO2 and water vapour
β Purification of blood
β Protective function- coughing, sneezing
β Talking
β’ Organs of Respiration
β Nose
β Throat
β Larynx
β Trachea with its branching system
β lungs
β (diagram of Respiratory System)
103. β’ Nose
β Two nasal cavities separated by nasal septum
β The Nasal Septum is made up of cartilage & bone
β’ Function
β Warming of Air
β Filtration of Air
β To keep nasal passage moist
β Sensation of smell
104.
105. β’ Throat & Larynx
β Throat (seven passages)
β’ Larynx
β’ Oesophagus
β’ Mouth
β’ Left Eustachian tube
β’ Right Eustachian tube
β’ Left nostril
β’ Right nostril
106. β’ Trachea
β Made up of cartilage and muscles
β Two main branches- Left and Right bronchus
β Branching and sub branching ending in alveoli
107.
108.
109. β’ Inspiration
β Active process β by muscular action
β’ Contraction of diaphragm
β Increase in vertical diameter
β’ Contraction of intercostals muscles
β Elevation of ribs and sternum
β Increase in antero-posterior and transverse diameter
β’ Expansion of lungs due to negative pressure
β Air drawn inwards
β’ Expiration
β Passive process
β Elastic recoil of the lungs due to Relaxation of diaphragm and inter
costal muscle.
β Positive pressure created in lungs
β’ Control of Respiration
β Control of Inspiration and Expiration by medulla oblongata
111. β’ Analysis of gases in respiration
O2 N2 CO2
Inspired air 21% 79% -
Exhaled air 16% 79% 5%
β’ Effects of Pranayama
β More oxygenation of blood
β Improvement in function of all organs
β Life span increases because of more supply of
oxygen
112.
113.
114.
115.
116. The Circulatory System
Purpose: to deliver oxygenated blood to the various cells and organ
systems in your body so they can undergo cellular respiration
Major Organs and Their Functions
Heart β the major muscle of the circulatory system
-- pumps blood through its four chambers (two ventricles
and two atria)
-- pumps deoxygenated blood into the lungs, where it
gets oxygenated, returned to the heart, and then pumped out
through the aorta to the rest of the body
-- valve regulate the flow of blood between the chambers
117. Arteries β carry blood away from the heart and to the major organs
of the body
Veins β carry blood back to the heart away from the major organs of
the body
Capillaries β small blood vessels where gas exchange occurs
Blood β the cells that flow through the circulatory system
-- red blood cells contain hemoglobin, an iron-rich protein
that carries oxygen
-- white blood cells function in the immune system
-- platelets help in blood clotting
Spleen β helps to filter out toxins in the blood
120. Components of blood
β Total volume of blood β 5 to 6 liters
β Components
β’ Plasma 55-60 %
β’ Blood cells 40-45 %
β RBC
β WBC
β Platelets
121. β’ R.B.C. (Red blood cells)
β Colour of blood due to RBC
β 4 to 5 millions / c.c.
β Hemoglobin carry 90% Oxygen
β Dumbbell shaped cells with no nucleus
β’ W.B.C. (White blood cells)
β White colored
β 6000 to 9000 / c.c.
β Kills the bacteria (protective role)
β No specific shape, with central nucleus
122.
123. β’ Platelets
β 1,00,000 to 2,00,000 / c.c.
β Helps in clotting of blood (Enzyme
Thrombokinase)
β Circular shape
β’ Plasma
β 90 to 92 % water
β 8 to 10 % dissolved organic & inorganic matter
(proteins, glucose, salts & hormones)
β Presence of antibodies
124. Functions of Blood
β To carry Oxygen from lungs to cells and to carry
CO2 from cells to lungs
β To carry nutrients from Digestive system to cells
β To carry excretory products (waste material) from
cells to excretory organs
β To carry hormones
β To maintain water balance in the body
β To maintain body temperature
β To protect the body from infections
β Clotting the blood after injury
125. Difference between Arteries & Veins
β’ Arteries β’ Veins
β Carry blood from heart β Carry blood from other
to other organs organs to heart
β Carry oxygenated blood β Carry de-oxygenated
β Have thick walls blood
β Do not have valves β Have thin walls
β Presence of valves
126.
127. β’ Heart
β Situated in the rib cage of chest on the left side
β Embedded in lungs
β Size of heart is equal to the size of clenched fist
β Connected with many big (giant )blood vessels
β Made up of involuntary muscle
β Heart starts beating from 4th month of IU life.
β Duration of one heart beat is 0.8sec.
128.
129.
130. β’ 4 Chambers of Heart
β Auricles to receive blood
β Ventricles to pump blood
β Left side oxygenated blood
β Right side deoxygenated blood
131.
132. β’ Circulation of Blood
β Continuous circulation
β Force of circulation due to pumping action of
heart
β From left ventricle ο Aorta ο Branches & Sub
branches ο Artery ο Small artery ο Arteriole ο
Capillaries ο CELLS ο Venouls ο Small veins
union of many veins ο Superior & Inferior
venacava ο Right auricle ο Right ventricle ο
Pulmonary artery ο Lungs (oxygenation) ο
Pulmonary veins ο Left auricle ο Left ventricle
133. β’ Spleen
β Situated in abdominal cavity
β Left hypochondriac region, below the ribs
β Weight 100gm
β’ Function of Spleen
β Production of blood cells
β Storage of blood
β Destruction of platelets
β To transport hemoglobin to liver
β Seat of some antibodies
β Extracts bacteria and dead cells from blood.
134.
135.
136.
137.
138. The Reproductive System
Functions of the Male Reproductive System
β’Production of gametes.
β’Synthesis of androgens.
β’Delivery of sperm into the female
reproductive tract.
Functions of the Female Reproductive System
β’Production of gametes
β’Production of female sex hormones
β’Reception and maintenance of β¦
139.
140.
141. The Nervous System
Purpose: to coordinate the bodyβs response to changes in its internal
and external environment
Major Organs and Their Functions
Brain β control center of the body, where all processes are relayed
through
-- consists of cerebrum (controls though and senses)
and cerebellum (controls motor functions)
Spinal Cord β sends instructions from the brain to the rest of the
body and vice versa
-- any organism with a major nerve cord is classified as
a chordate
Nerves β conduct impulses to muscle cells throughout the body
142. β’ Nervous system
β Central processing unit of body. Controls and
balance of body functions.
β’ Divisions
β Central nervous system (CNS)
β Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
β Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
β’ Components
β Nerve cell
β Sensory nerve
β Brain
β Motor nerve
β End organ
144. β’ Functions of Nervous system
β Control over voluntary and involuntary functions /
actions.
β To control body
movements, respiration, circulation, digestion, hormo
ne secretion, body temperature
β To receive stimuli from sense organs, perceive them
and respond accordingly
β Higher mental functions like
memory, receptivity, perception & thinking.
145.
146. β’ Parts of CNS
β Cerebrum
β Cerebellum
β Mid brain
β Pones
β Medulla oblongata
β Spinal cord
147. β’ Brain
β Protected by skull
β Three coverings of brain called meninges
β’ Dura
β’ Arachnoid
β’ Pia matter
β Cerebro spinal fluid (CSF) between the Pia meter
and Arachnoid
β CSF acts as a shock absorber and provides
nutrition to the brain
148.
149.
150. β’ Cerebrum
β Biggest part of brain, divided into two hemispheres
β Contra lateral control
β Outer surface is grey due to cells
β Internally white due to fibers
β Surface is folded to increase the area
β’ Functions of cerebrum
β Intellect, memory, will power, imagination, emotion &
other psychological functions
β Receive and perceive the stimuli
β To give command for reaction with the help of past
experience
β To control over other parts of nervous system
151. β’ Cerebellum
β Situated below and behind the cerebrum
β’ Functions of cerebellum
β Controls tone muscles
β Helps coordination of body movements
β Helps balancing the body
β’ Mid brain
β Underneath the cerebrum and above pons
β’ Functions of mid brain
β To control involuntary functions
152. β’ Pons
β Below mid brain
β’ Functions of pons
β Control of consciousness
β Control level of concentration
β’ Medulla oblongata
β Lowest part of CNS just above the spinal cord
β’ Functions of Medulla oblongata
β Control of respiration
β Control of circulation
β Control of swallowing and vomiting
153. β’ Spinal cord
β Located safely in spinal canal
β Length is 45cm, which extends up to first lumber
vertebra
β 31 pairs of peripheral nerves starts from spinal
cord
β’ Functions of spinal cord
β To propagate sensory stimuli from organs to the
brain
β To carry commands from the brain towards the
organs
β Reflex action
154. β’ Reflex action
β Protective function of the spinal cord
β Sensory organ
β Afferent nerve
β Sensory cell in posterior horn of spinal cord
β Connector nerve
β Motor cell in anterior horn of spinal cord
β Efferent nerve
β End organ of reaction
155. β’ Autonomic nervous system (Involuntary
nervous system)
β It has control over
β’ Digestion
β’ Respiration
β’ Circulation
β’ Hormone secretion
β’ Maintenance of body temperature
β’ Maintenance of water balance
β’ Peripheral nervous system
β 12 pairs of cranial nerves from brain (cranial
nerves)
β 31 pairs of spinal nerves from spinal cord (spinal
nerves)
156.
157.
158.
159. The Endocrine System
Purpose: to control growth, development, metabolism and
reproduction through the production and secretion of hormones
Major Organs
-- hypothalamus
-- pituitary gland
-- thyroid
-- parathyroid
-- adrenal glands
-- pancreas
-- testes
-- ovaries
160.
161.
162.
163. The Skeletal System
Purpose: to provide structure and support to the human body
Bones are where new blood cells are generated (in the
marrow), and require the mineral calcium for strength
Major Bones of the Human Body
-- femur (thigh bone) -- humerus (upper arm)
-- radius and ulna (lower arm) -- cranium (skull)
-- sternum (breastbone) -- clavicle (shoulder blade)
-- fibula and tibia (calf) -- vertebrae (back)
-- scalpula (shoulder) -- pelvic bone
-- coccyx (tail bone) -- phalanges (fingers/toes)
164. Composition of Bone
β’ 70% calcium, magnesium & phosphorus salts
(Inorganic matter)
β’ 30% Proteins, Fats, Carbohydrates (Organic matter)
β’ Children
β Less amount of inorganic matter
β’ Old Age
β Less amount of organic matter
165.
166. Types of Joints
Types of joints
Fixed joints Mobile joints
Skull, Ball & Socket joint,
Vertebra Sliding joint,
Hinge joint,
Pivot joint
167. Types of Mobile joints
Ball & Socket joint Hinge joint
Sliding joint Pivot joint
168.
169.
170.
171. Functions of Skeletal System
β’ Supports the body
β’ Protects the vital organs
β’ Helps to produce red blood cells
β’ Acts as levers in locomotion
β’ Provides surface for muscle attachment
β’ Storage of salts and minerals
172. The Muscular System
Purpose: works with the skeletal and nervous system to produce
movement, also helps to circulate blood through the human body
-- muscle cells are fibrous
-- muscle contractions can be voluntary or involuntary
Examples of muscles :
-- biceps -- triceps -- deltoids
-- glutes -- hamstrings -- Quadriceps
173. Types of Muscles
β’ Striped Muscle (Voluntary Muscle, Skeletal Muscle)
β Movement controlled by will
β Attached to bones, ligaments, cartilage & skin
β’ Unstriped Muscle (Involuntary Muscle, Smooth Muscle)
β Movements cannot be controlled by will
β Glands, Blood Vessels, Organs & Tubular structures are
made of unstriped muscle
β’ Cardiac Muscle
β Involuntary Control
β Interconnected fibres (forming a web)
178. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’ Muscles of the Head and Neck
179. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’ Muscles of the Head and Neck
180. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’ Muscles of the Anterior Neck
Figure 7-13
181. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’Muscles of
the Spine
Figure 7-14
182. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’Oblique and Rectus
Muscles and the
Diaphragm
Figure 7-15(a)
183. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’Oblique and Rectus Muscles and the
Diaphragm
Figure 7-15(b)
184. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’ Muscles of the Shoulder
Figure 7-17(a)
185. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’ Muscles of the Shoulder
Figure 7-17(b)
186. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’ Muscles that Move the Arm
Figure 7-18(a)
187. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’ Muscles that Move the Arm
Figure 7-18(b)
188. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’ Muscles That Move the Forearm and Wrist
Figure 7-19
189. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’ Muscles That Move the Thigh
Figure 7-20(a)
190. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’Muscles That Move
the Thigh
Figure 7-20(b)
191. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’ Muscles That Move the Leg
Figure 7-21
192. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’ Muscles That Move the Foot and Toes
Figure 7-22(a)
193. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’Muscles That Move the
Foot and Toes
Figure 7-22(b)
194. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’Muscles That Move
the Foot and Toes
Figure 7-22(c)
195. Anatomy of the Muscular System
β’Muscles That
Move the Foot and
Toes
Figure 7-22(d)
196. When skeletal muscles contract, they may
produce two types of contractions:
ο§ Isotonic contraction
ο§ Isometric contraction
197. Isotonic contraction β as tension increases (more motor
units recruited), length of muscle changes usually
resulting in movement of a joint. The tension (load) on a
muscle stays constant (iso = same, tonic = tension)
during a movement. (Example: lifting a baby, picking up
object, walking, etc. )
198. Isometric contraction β no change in length of muscle
even as tension increases. The length of a muscle stays
constant (iso = same, metric = length) during a
βcontractionβ (Example: holding a baby at arms
length, pushing against a closed door.)
Necessary in everyday life to counteract effects of gravity
(e.g. postural muscles keeping head up)
199. The Immune System
Purpose: to remove infectious diseases and other pathogens from
the human body
Major Organs and Their Functions
Skin β also called the integumentary system, the skin is the bodyβs
first line of defense
White Blood Cells β recognize disease agents (antigens) and create
antibodies to tag and remove these antigens
-- phagocytes are the white blood cell type that actually
eats and destroys these antigens
Lymph Nodes β help restore fluid lost by the blood and return it to
the circulatory system