National FORUM Journals, www.nationalforum.com, Dr. W.A. Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, Houston, Texas

1. NATIONAL JOURNAL: FOCUS ON COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, AND SCHOOLS
VOLUME 1 NUMBER 1, 2007
Effects of Labeling Students “Learning Disabled”:
Emergent Themes in the Research Literature 1970 through
2000
Karen Osterholm, PhD
Assistant Professor
Department of Educational Leadership and
Counseling
The Whitelowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
William R. Nash, EdD
Professor
Department of Educational Psychology
Texas A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Professor
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
The Whitelowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, Oxford, England
Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
College of Education and Professional Studies
Central Washington University
ABSTRACT
Using an iterative process similar to the constant comparative method, 34 studies
addressing the impact of the learning disabled label were synthesized. Four overlapping
primary themes emerged: expectancies, stereotypes, and attitudes; stigmatization,
rejection, and social distance; action versus attitude toward labeled individuals; and
differential influence of the LD label when other salient information is provided.
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Introduction
The confusion and conflict surrounding definition, diagnosis, and treatment of learning
disabilities is well documented. Debate over definition is common and surprisingly heated.
Learning disabilities manifest in diverse ways, making diagnosis difficult. Lacking associated
physical signs or symptoms, learning disabilities comprise an invisible disability. As a result,
students so labeled are frequently considered simply lacking in motivation or commitment. Ong-
Dean (2005) points out that society may view invisible disabilities as “illegitimate excuses for
failure to conform” (p. 148) to achievement standards and other expectations. Alternately, the
LD diagnosis is sometimes misconstrued by laypersons as a form of mental retardation, with
myriad misconceptions deriving from this error. Labeled students, their co-learners, and teachers
often experience considerable frustration in negotiating the legal, ethical, educational, and social
mazes that learning disabilities present.
When ambiguity and the attendant professional disagreement regarding a disorder are
ongoing, the question of whether the designation should be used at all inevitably arises. Does
such a diagnosis hinder more than help those so labeled? Labeling theory, a sociological model,
proposes that labeling of individuals as “different” in the negative connotation of the word
creates a potentially distorted reality for those who bear the label, as well as for their teachers,
parents, and peers (Hebding & Glick, 1987). Labeling theory further predicts that once an
individual is labeled, “the social group seems to assign to that person a new identity and a new
role, a new set of expectations. The social group then responds to the individual according to
those expectations, thus reinforcing the label and affecting all future interactions” (p. 136).
The labeled individual’s self-perception is inextricably bound to others’ perceptions and
reactions. As Poole, Regoli, and Pogrebin (1986) suggest, individuals “are not passive recipients
of negative labels; rather, they are actively managing or coping with these labels” (p. 347). A
self-fulfilling prophecy might result when a person accepts the label and incorporates it into her
or his self-conceptualization, with reduced performance expectations and damaged self-esteem
as unfortunate byproducts (McGrew & Evans, 2003; Rosenthal, 2002). Reduced effort and lower
achievement might logically follow.
Others engaged in the debate believe that labels serve useful purposes with a net positive
result. Keogh (1987) opines that the LD label serves “as a focus for advocacy and for ensuring
attention to the problem, as a category or mechanism for providing services and as a condition or
set of conditions that require scientific study” (pp. 4-5). Kuther (1994) adds that diagnostic labels
facilitate research for practitioners, which hopefully results in tailored interventions and program
improvement. Opposing those who support inclusion and elimination of the LD label, Hallahan
and Kauffman (1994) go so far as to endorse development of a “culture of disability.” They
suggest that reduced stigma and enhanced learning might be achieved by “developing esprit de
corps among congregations of people with disabilities” (p. 505).
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act 2004 (IDEIA, 2004)
speaks to the labeling issue repeatedly. Particularly germane to the concerns of this paper, the
new statute prescribes “early intervening services to reduce the need to label children as disabled
in order to address the learning and behavioral needs of such children.” The statement is first
seen in the 2004 statute, bearing subtle testimony to the recognized dangers of label application.

3. KAREN OSTERHOLM, WILLIAM R. NASH, AND WILLIAM ALLAN KRITSONIS
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Purpose of the Article
Divergent opinions on the ramifications of the “learning disabled” label abound. The
purpose of this study is a synthesis of research related to the effects of the label. Herein, “label”
will connote a designation assignment by qualified school personnel, psychologists, and other
diagnostic professionals. The reader should be cognizant that informal labeling – as well as self-
identification – might certainly impact the labeled individual as well.
Research Questions
Study selection, examination, and synthesis were guided by the following research questions:
1. How does being formally labeled as learning disabled affect labeled students?
2. Are teachers’ perceptions, attitudes, expectations, and behaviors different for labeled and
nonlabeled students?
3. How do nonlabeled co-learners perceive and react to peers identified as learning
disabled?
Methodology
Using all professional databases available, conscientious efforts were made to identify,
locate, and collect the entire population of relevant studies from 1970 through 2000. Several
promising studies failed to delineate students’ diagnoses precisely, while others did not
adequately distinguish the influence of the label from the cumulative impact of experiences
germinated by the symptoms of the disorder. The term “learning disabilities” denotes very
different phenomena in different countries (Hart, 1999). In response to these and other
idiosyncrasies of this particular literature, the following selection criteria evolved:
1. Studies must report data specific to the LD label as a distinct phenomenon, rather
than data based on aggregated diagnostic labels.
2. Studies must directly address the formal LD label as distinguished from the actual
disorder.
3. Studies involving two or more diagnoses within a single individual described in case
studies or presented in vignettes were excluded.
4. Due to differential use of relevant labels across national boundaries, only studies
conducted in the United States were utilized in this synthesis.

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Application of these selection criteria yielded 33 studies. Twenty-eight employed quantitative
methodologies, and five were qualitative. One quantitative research effort involved two
independent reports, yielding a total of 34 studies.
The decision to include both quantitative and qualitative studies was a carefully
considered one. Despite the obvious philosophical and other distinctions between the two
research types, synthesis of diverse approaches has become increasingly utilized and appreciated
in recent years (Collins, Onwuegbuzie, & Sutton, 2006). Miles and Huberman (1994) offer
strong support for this approach when they state, “The careful measurement, generalizable
samples, experiment control, and statistical tools of good quantitative studies are precious assets.
When they are combined with the up-close, real-world contexts that characterize good qualitative
studies, we have a very powerful mix (p. 42).
Specific methods used to analyze and combine results from the 34 identified reports were
necessarily driven by the characteristics of the data collected. An iterative approach similar to the
constant comparative method was employed (Boeije, 2002; Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Descriptive
synopses were developed for each study. The synthesist was alert to potential commonalities and
patterns, analogous to the concept of emerging themes in the qualitative literature. She kept an
informal record of such intuitions and insights, generating tentative labels for individual clusters.
Methodological, theoretical, temporal, and subject-related patterns were of interest, though
receptivity to other potential commonalities was a hallmark of the iterative process. Each new
synopsis presented potential for addition to and reorganization of groupings previously
considered. During this phase, data collection and data analysis proceeded simultaneously and
interactively.
After completion of the 34 descriptive synopses, all were reviewed by one of the authors
and another faculty member in psychology, and sorted with regard to the final iteration of
clusters. Many studies fell into multiple clusters. Examination of clusters yielded four
overlapping themes or patterns. Again, studies often contributed to more than one theme.
Results and Discussion
The four overlapping themes or patterns that eventually emerged follow.
1. Expectancies, stereotypes, and attitudes related to the LD label
2. Stigmatization, rejection, and social distance related to the LD label
3. Action versus attitude
4. Differential influence of the LD label given other salient information
Each of the four themes is addressed below. Selected studies from the synthesis are cited in
support of the themes. Additional research affording further clarification is cited as well.

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Expectancies, Stereotypes, and Attitudes Related to the LD Label
A review of the literature relevant to sociological labeling theory offers relatively strong
support for the view that negative or deviant labels generate unfortunate expectancies. A number
of studies addressed this particular theme – some more directly than others. Minner (1982)
investigated the academic and behavioral expectations for students labeled with learning
disabilities and students labeled with educable mental retardation. A “no-label” group served as
the control. Vocational teachers read a vignette describing student attributes germane to
academic performance, as well as typical behaviors exhibited. Some subjects received vignettes
in which the student was described as learning disabled, while others were led to believe that
their student had educable mentally retardation. The research reports a significant negative effect
for diagnostic labels. Additionally, post hoc tests revealed that nonlabeled students with negative
descriptions and students labeled LD with positive descriptions were not differentiated. Even
more surprisingly, teachers made no distinction between LD students with promising attributes
and those described negatively.
Minner and Prater (1984) asked college teachers to judge the academic promise of a
student portrayed as having learning disabilities, as well as their own ability to work successfully
with such college students. According to the researchers, “the LD label significantly and
negatively influenced faculty members’ initial expectations” (p. 228). They were less definitive
with regard to the impact of the label on teachers’ perceived ability to work effectively with the
LD student. In a subsequent study, Minner (1990) reports that teachers were significantly less
likely to refer a child labeled LD to a gifted program, even though descriptive vignettes were
otherwise identical to those describing other children who were referred. For teachers familiar
with the discrepancy formula so often applied in diagnosing LD, Minner’s vignette may have
been confusing since it described a student with congruent achievement and intelligence.
Though results are not entirely consistent, these and other quantitative studies suggest
that the LD label has potentially negative implications for those who bear it. Relevant themes
from qualitative studies were examined to determine whether context-specific information would
inform the quantitative data. Albinger (1995) quotes one young man as saying, “Mrs. Albinger, if
you make me keep coming to resource, I’ll just be a bum on the street [pointing out the window].
All the bums out there went to resource!” (p. 621) The painful impact of such an expectation on
the boy’s self-esteem cannot be overstated. Several students reported repeated name-calling
incidents involving pejorative terms such as “stupid” and “retard.” Labeled students reported
insensitive teacher behavior as well. One instructor criticized a labeled child’s academic efforts
publicly, chastising her for acting like a kindergartner. Barga (1996) quotes a math teacher who
fondly called a favorite labeled student “D.D.” – an abbreviation for “Darling Dummy.”
In summary, analysis suggests that the learning disabilities label generates reduced or
negative expectations, as well as negative stereotypes and attitudes. Lower expectations often
translate into reduced effort and lower achievement. Studies characterized by design flaws and
inadequate reporting may reduce confidence in such conclusions, however. Further and better
research is essential in clarifying this issue. IDEIA 2004 indirectly supports this premise,
stating: “Almost 30 years of research and experience has demonstrated that the education of
children with disabilities can be made more effective by … having high expectations for such
children.”

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Stigmatization, Rejection, and Social Distance Related to the LD Label
Several studies included in this synthesis suggest that children designated as learning
disabled experience emotional and physical isolation as a result. Cartledge, Frew, and Zaharias
(1985) report that fourth- and fifth-graders rated a child labeled LD significantly more negatively
on 12 of 15 questions presented than they did a similar boy labeled “non-handicapped.” Though
the labeled boy was rated as less likely to treat others children unkindly, students expressed
lower levels of interest in establishing a friendship with him. Researchers did not assess level of
student understanding of the term learning disabled. With very young subjects, such a
determination might be especially important.
The concepts of expectancy and stereotypy have overlapping and cyclical relationships
with stigmatization, rejection, and social distance. Studies purporting to address one of these
phenomena often subtly inform our understanding of the others. For example, the previously
cited study on academic expectations for college students with learning disabilities (Minner &
Prater, 1984) is relevant to the second theme as well. College faculty members made a
distinction between the labeled and nonlabeled students with regard to predictions of academic
success, as well as the teachers’ perceived ability to work with the individual portrayed. Upon
superficial consideration of these outcomes, one might deduce that faculty members feel
underprepared for the challenge rather than averse to the student. Unsolicited comments written
on the questionnaires suggest otherwise. One professor wrote, “We cannot allow everyone into
college – the integrity of the B.A. degree cannot be challenged” (p. 228). “I am trained to teach
bright students, not handicapped ones,” opined another. These remarks imply stigmatization,
rejection, and desire for increased social distance from students with learning disabilities.
Research on stigmatization and rejection relative to the LD label is not entirely
consistent. Cohen’s (1977) study cited previously used the Mann-Whitney U to compare
numbers of positive adjectives attributed to various student groups. Teacher responses did
suggest a significant bias against students labeled LD compared to those identified as “normal.”
Though this might seem purely a study of attitudes or stereotypes, an additional manipulation of
the variables informs acceptance versus rejection due to label. When the written vignette
described a learning disabled individual but no actual label was provided, lower ratings were
given than when the same description was labeled LD. Perhaps individuals displaying atypical
behaviors are more likely to be stigmatized and rejected when there is no ready explanation for
their “difference.”
Studies that fail to distinguish clearly the impact of the LD label from effects of the actual
disorder (and thus are ineligible for actual inclusion in the synthesis) enhance understanding of
stigmatization. When physical segregation from nonlabeled co-learners is part of labeled
students’ experience, feelings of stigmatization are legitimized regardless of whether the label is
appropriately applied. Albinger (1995) reports that labeled students’ efforts to avoid
stigmatization usually included fabricated stories about their activities apart from time with
nonlabeled students. Some children carried the lie for several years, as when one student told
friends that she took piano lessons at a certain time each day. Another child told friends on
several occasions that he arrived late due to problems with the family car.
In his qualitative study on African American and Hispanic American teenagers who bear
the LD label in New York schools, Bryant (1989) offers even sadder commentary on the

7. KAREN OSTERHOLM, WILLIAM R. NASH, AND WILLIAM ALLAN KRITSONIS
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embarrassment experienced by labeled students. One individual reported that students in the
resource room would try to conceal their identities when regular education students walked by.
“Regular ed. kids could come by and everyone would cover their faces. We’d cover our faces
and we would all hide because we’d be embarrassed” (p. 91).
Many students reported that “pullout” programs were especially problematic, as
nonlabeled students bore witness when labeled students were called to a special place for special
students. The social distancing phenomenon inherent in such segregation is a concern as well.
Even labeled students who consider the LD diagnosis a relief or welcome explanation for
previously misunderstood “differences” suggest that physical separation from non-labeled peer is
disheartening and potentially stigmatizing (Barga, 1996). IDEIA 2004 lends credence to the
importance of minimizing social and physical difference, stating that “the education of children
with disabilities can be made more effective by … ensuring their access to the general education
curriculum in the regular classroom, to the maximum extent possible.”
Action versus Attitude
The potential pain derived from the first two themes to emerge from this synthesis should
certainly not be diminished. Some evidence suggests, however, that attitudes toward those
labeled learning disabled are typically more negative than actions taken. In other words,
disheartening responses to attitude and acceptability scales notwithstanding, nonlabeled others
may behave more responsibly when action is required of them. Certainly, this is not new idea.
Social psychologists have long wondered at the apparent disconnect sometimes observed
between attitudes and behavior (Brehm & Kassin, 1996; Ajzen, 2000).
Cohen (1977) illustrates this phenomenon in her dissertation involving teachers’
stereotypes of three groups: learning disabled students, individuals whose reading requires
remediation (RR), and their normal peers. Teachers consistently ascribed more negatively
connotative adjectives to LD and RR label-bearers compared to nonlabeled students. Yet they
did not translate these negative perceptions or attitudes into discriminatory action. Regardless of
the label applied and the information provided, teachers in Cohen’s study were able to score all
students’ essays fairly and accurately. Thus, their expectations did not dictate their behavior.
Several studies comparing diagnostic labels but lacking an unlabeled control group lend
support to the suggestion that attitude and action are relatively independent phenomena. Boucher
and Deno (1979) found that teachers who read a three-page case study with either the LD or ED
label affixed were capable of objective programming decisions. The ED label was more
consistently recalled than the LD label, which might suggest a stronger reaction to the former.
Yet any differential reaction to the two labels was not translated into behavioral distinctions.
Fairbanks and Stinnett (1997) tapped a more diverse subject population. Teachers, school
psychologists, and school workers were presented with a vignette describing a third-grader with
a pattern of disruptive behavior. Different diagnostic labels were assigned to the hypothetical
child for different subjects; LD, behaviorally disordered (BD), and ADD ascriptions were
alternately made. When asked to judge the acceptability of one of two possible intervention
strategies, no labeling effects were noted. However, no nonlabeled control group is in evidence.

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Additionally, no attitude or expectancy measure was taken for comparison with the more action-
oriented plan for intervention. This was not the stated purpose of the study, so the researchers
cannot be faulted here. The report states, “an attempt was made to distribute each of the labels
and interventions equally within each of the groups” (p. 330). This was perhaps a practical
alternative to random distribution within groups or across groups, given the relatively small
sample sizes and the large number of treatment combinations.
In summary, studies seem to suggest that prejudicial attitudes toward individuals labeled
LD do not necessarily result in discriminatory behavior. The research on stigmatization and
social distance might be interpreted as suggesting quite the opposite, however, at least among
student populations.
Differential Influence of the LD Label Given Other Salient Information
A fourth theme emerging from the data involves whether the LD label loses potency
when additional information is available to moderate it. Huebner (1990) asked school
psychologists to make diagnostic and placement decisions for fictitious students, providing them
with a student profile, identification as having learning disabilities or as “normal,” and current
diagnostic testing data. Results indicate that only current psychological test results influenced
psychologists’ decisions. In other words, even when a student was currently in a special
placement for her or his disabilities, most psychologists were quite willing to declare that neither
the special placement nor the label was necessary. Huebner considers this outcome evidence that
confirmation bias may not be as strong as previously believed. Similarly, Dukes (1987) found
that expectancies were mediated by exposure to additional salient information. Elementary
teachers’ pretest scores reflected the predicted expectancy effects for learning disabled students.
However, following exposure to two videos in which teacher and students interacted in a
classroom setting, posttest scores were not impacted by label.
Sichel (1984) designed a creative study to investigate interaction effects between the LD
label and teacher personality, as well as several elements irrelevant to the current synthesis.
Results on a dogmatism scale enabled him to separate subjects into two groups representing
opposite ends of the dogmatic/open-minded continuum. Several dependent measures offered
impressive triangulation. Teachers evaluated an essay reportedly written by a hypothetical
student who was described to half the subjects as learning disabled. This study is unique among
the quantitative selections because subjects actually interacted with the student rather than
reading vignettes or viewing videotapes. Though the student was a confederate of the researcher,
this design allowed a closer approximation to reality than most others found in the literature.
Interpersonal impressions constituted one dependent variable, while objective observers’ ratings
of teachers’ support and liking for the student were examined as well. The presence or absence
of the LD label had no impact on outcomes. Teachers were similarly objective, supportive, and
pleasant regardless of the student’s ascribed status.
Graham and Dwyer (1987) studied the degree of objectivity that college students could
muster when faced with grading an essay reportedly written by a student labeled learning
disabled. Control group participants believed that nonlabeled students wrote the essays they read.

9. KAREN OSTERHOLM, WILLIAM R. NASH, AND WILLIAM ALLAN KRITSONIS
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Though results indicated that the LD label did affect scores assigned, the quality of the essay
wielded even greater influence. These and other studies offer relatively strong support for the
view that salient information ameliorates label bias.
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, despite design and conceptual flaws evident in several studies utilized in
this synthesis, tentative conclusions may be drawn. Overall, assignment of the learning disabled
label is associated with teachers’ lowered expectations, as well as more negative stereotypes and
attitudes toward the labeled individual. Most synthesized studies employed written vignettes or
brief videotaped segments, both of which are rather artificial stimuli. Others failed to employ
appropriate control groups. However, when children rather consistently rate hypothetical peers
labeled LD as less acceptable, less socially attractive, and even less valuable, the potential social
and emotional implications for real children so labeled are disheartening. Labeled individuals
report stigmatization and both social and physical distancing from nonlabeled peers, factors that
render the school experience even less appealing for those targeted.
These unfortunate conditions notwithstanding, evidence indicates that negative
perceptions of the labeled student do not necessarily generate biased grading practices or
inappropriate programming. Further, compelling evidence suggests that the negative impact of
the label is diminished when other salient information is available. Sensitivity and diversity
training, as well as educational efforts aimed at increasing all stakeholders’ understanding of
learning disabilities, might further reduce the negative impact of the label.
This synthesis included studies published from 1970 through 2000 that met selection
criteria delineated earlier. However, 27 of the 34 studies were published before 1990, perhaps
skewing results relative to all themes identified. With hope that progress has been made
regarding attitudes toward diversity in general and learning differences in particular, future
researchers might compare studies from different decades including those published most
recently.
The debate regarding the potentially negative outcomes of being labeled learning
disabled as opposed to possible benefits derived is ongoing. As Sack-Min (2007) notes, however,
applying a diagnostic label to an individual “is a profound decision that affects the rest of his or
her educational career and life” (p. 23). Continued exploration of the clarity and utility of the
label itself is warranted.
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