Teacher Preparation Reforms in the US

CHAPTER 12–TEACHER PREPARATION IN AMERICA AND SCHOOLING
PAGE 32
This book is protected under the Copyright Act of 1976. Uncited Sources,
Violators will be prosecuted. Courtesy, National FORUM Journals
CHAPTER 12
TEACHER PREPARATION IN
AMERICA AND SCHOOLING
KEY POINTS
1. Approximately 1,300 universities and colleges offer teacher education
programs.
2. The number of students enrolled in teacher education dropped significantly
during the 1970s and early 1980s.
3. The critical reports of the early 1980s and mid 1990s cited several
weaknesses in teacher education programs.
4. Reforms have been initiated in the majority of university teacher education
programs.
5. The Carnegie Report and Holmes Group have made the most significant
impact on teacher education reform.
6. Teacher certification has changed very little during the past 50 years.
7. Many states have alternative certification standards.
8. It is difficult to predict if teacher shortages will be widespread. Shortages
will continue to exist in “special needs” areas such as special education,
foreign language, science and mathematics, remedial education, computer
science, and bilingual education.
Copyright © 2005
William Kritsonis
All Rights Reserved / Forever

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CHAPTER 12–TEACHER PREPARATION IN AMERICA AND
SCHOOLING
A. OVERVIEW
This chapter provides information about how teachers are trained and certified.
The reform actions in teacher education resulted from the critical reports that
are discussed, as well as current practices in teacher education. Also presented
are teacher testing requirements and how teachers can be certified using
alternative certification methods.
B. KEY TERMS–DEFINITIONS
ADMISSION STANDARDS - most states now require minimum test scores to
enter teacher education programs. The tool most often used is the student’s
GPA. GPA requirements are on an upward swing.
ALTERNATIVE CERTIFICATION - teacher licensure obtained through
other than traditional coursework in education courses.
CARNEGIE REPORT - the Carnegie Report focused on similar areas as the
Holmes Group. One additional recommendation was a suggestion for the
creation of a National Board of Professional Teaching Standards to determine
the knowledge and skills teachers need to have and how to assess these skills.
CERTIFICATION - must have a bachelor degree before certification; earn a
minimal number of credit hours in various courses, including general education
courses, professional education courses in the student’s teaching field, and
student teaching. Certification for specialized positions such as principal,
school psychologist, guidance counselor, and so on requires a prescribed
amount of graduate level study and teaching experience.
EXIT CRITERIA - many colleges of education have begun to require teachers
to pass exit exams such as the National Teacher Examination (NTE). Even if
the university does not require the test, numerous states currently require the
exam for teacher certification.
FIVE-YEAR PROGRAM - for many years, some critics of teacher education
programs have encouraged colleges and universities to expand training
programs to five years.
HOLMES GROUP - a group of about 100 research universities that issued a
report in 1986 calling for major reforms in teacher education.
NATIONAL TEACHER EXAM (NTE) - an exit exam that a teacher has to
pass as a requirement for teacher certification.

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PEDAGOGY - the art, science, or profession of teaching.
REFORMS - colleges of education around the country are currently engaged
in major revisions of their training programs to better meet the needs of
students. The Holmes Group recommended five areas of change: (a) abandon
undergraduate teacher education programs for a liberal arts undergraduate
emphasis and a master’s level focus on pedagogy; (b) create the position of
career professional teacher who would be involved with teaching,
administration, and teacher education; (c) implement evaluation models for
teachers and university training programs; (d) create partnerships between
schools of education and school districts; (e) develop models for collaboration
between teachers and administration.
TEACHER EDUCATION - programs designed to train prospective teachers in
pedagogy.
TEACHER EDUCATION CURRICULUM - elementary education majors
range from 12 to 78 credit hours, with a mean of 30 hours, some require 50
semester hours of professional education courses; secondary, 12 to 47 hours,
mean of 28 hours, require more than 30 semester hours for graduation. They
also take methods courses.
TEACHER TESTING - testing new teachers is a controversial issue. The
NEA long opposed teacher testing and has just recently reversed its
oppositions to testing. The AFT has a long-term record of supporting teacher
testing. In addition to testing new teachers, some states have passed testing
requirements for veteran teachers.
C. SOME PRECEDING THOUGHTS
1. What is the status of teacher education?
Despite the large number of teacher education programs, the enrollment in
these programs has declined sharply since 1970. In 1969, 24% of all
college bound students in the U.S. planned to major in teacher education.
This number had dropped to less than 5% in 1982. From 1970 to 1986, the
number of students graduating from teacher education programs dropped
from 314,000 to under 90,000. One reason for the drop in numbers has
been the decline in the status of teaching.
The reasons for declining enrollments in teacher education programs are
complex and include more than lower teacher status. One obvious reason
for the lower number of education majors is the lack of available jobs. In
the 1960s, teaching jobs were taken by approximately 25% of all college
graduates. When the market became over-supplied with qualified teachers
at the end of the 1960s, graduates from liberal arts programs who could

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become certified with minimal additional training found no jobs were
available. The result was that fewer undergraduates majored in education.
Now the ratio of graduates to job openings has reversed.
The number of public school teachers in schools is expected to increase
from the present 2.2 million to more than 2.4 million in 2002. This demand
for teachers should lead to an increase in the number of undergraduate
majors in teacher education. Generally, teacher education is becoming
more practical and reality based. Competency-based teacher education,
school based centers for preparing teachers, early field experience in
elementary and secondary schools are some of the most recent trends.
Fifth-year and five-year programs are being introduced in hopes of
developing reflective teachers. Teachers are being prepared to use the
latest technology, to work with students having special needs, and to teach
in diverse environments.
2. What are the major criticisms of teacher education?
a. admission standards are so low that anyone can enroll in teacher
education programs;
b. education majors take too much coursework on “how to teach” and not
enough on “what to teach”;
c. the general education program for prospective teachers is less rigorous
than that required of other majors;
d. anyone who gains admission to a teacher education program will
undoubtedly graduate because the academic standards are so low.
Other criticisms include the overall quality of education majors, poor
abilities of teacher education faculty, and the lack of general education
courses taken by education majors.
3. How have universities responded to criticisms related to teacher
training?
Colleges of education around America are currently engaged in major
revisions of their training programs to better meet the needs of students.
Some of the changes include: (a) improving the quality of teacher
education majors; (b) revising the curriculum; (c) increasing funding for
teacher education; and (d) developing alternative certification
requirements.
Some university teacher education programs require more field experience
than student teaching. For example, students may enroll in three different
field experiences. In addition to the normal student teaching, education

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majors enroll in an introductory field experience where they are involved
in a school improvement project with a cooperating local school district.
In addition to implementing better screening of students at the beginning
of teacher education programs, many universities have begun to require
teachers to pass exit examinations such as the National Teachers
Examination. Even if the university does not require an exit test, numerous
states currently require tests as a requirement for teacher certification.
Other states will implement certification test requirements. Of tests used,
the NTE is required most often.
In response to criticisms by the Holmes Group and in the Carnegie Report,
many universities and colleges are expanding their teacher education
programs to five years.
4. How are teachers certified in most states?
Most states require that all individuals have a bachelor’s degree before
they can be certified. Most states also require that students earn a minimal
number of credit hours in various courses, including general education
courses, professional education courses, courses in the student’s
specialized teaching field, and student teaching.
5. What is alternative certification and what is its status?
With teacher shortages being severe in some areas (i.e., science and math,
special education, foreign languages, remedial education, computer
science, bilingual education), and emerging criticisms of traditional
teacher education programs, states have opted to initiate alternative
methods to certify teachers other than through traditional college of
education degree programs. Numerous states have implemented alternative
certification provisions since the mid-1990s.
D. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. What are some of the major criticisms aimed at teacher education
programs?
a. admission standards are so low that anyone can enroll in teacher
education programs;
b. education majors take too much coursework in “how to teach” and not
enough coursework in “what to teach”;
c. the general education program for prospective teachers is less rigorous
than that required of other majors;

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d. anyone who gains admission to a teacher education program will
undoubtedly graduate because the academic standards are so low.
2. What are some of the reforms that have been made recently in teacher
education programs?
a. expanding teacher education programs to five years;
b. implementing exit criteria;
c. improving the curriculum;
d. improving the quality of teaching education majors.
3. What are the elements of The Kritsonis Advanced Knowledge Level of
Thinking Model?
The purpose of the The Kritsonis Advanced Knowledge Level of
Thinking Model is to illustrate students’ potential knowledge level of
thinking.
A teacher has an advanced knowledge level of thinking because of
education, training, or experience. These experiences can never be totally
imparted to the learner. The teacher can go only so far because learners are
deficient in their maturity, storage of information, education, training, and
experience. At best, the teacher may hope to bring students to a knowledge
level of thinking approaching the 50% level.
Although teachers try, they can never impart a total of 100% of their
knowledge because the learner has limited experiences. Therefore, if
learners are to advance beyond the 50% knowledge level of thinking, they
must accept the responsibility for gaining additional experiences and
training along with educating themselves. By doing so, the student
advances past the 50% level toward gaining an advanced level of thinking.

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4. What is the National Education Code of Ethics?
Preamble
The educator, believing in the worth and dignity of each human being,
recognizes the supreme importance of the pursuit of truth, devotion to
excellence, and the nurture of democratic principles. Essential to these
goals is the protection of freedom to learn and to teach and the guarantee
of equal educational opportunity for all. The educator accepts the
responsibility to adhere to the highest ethical standards.
The educator recognizes the magnitude of the responsibility inherent in the
teaching process. The desire for the respect and confidence of one’s
colleagues, of students, of parents, and of the members of the community
provides the incentive to attain and maintain the highest possible degree of
ethical conduct. The Code of Ethics of the Education Profession indicates
the aspiration of all educators and provides standards by which to judge
conduct.
The remedies specified by the NEA and/or its affiliates for the violation of
any provision of this Code shall be exclusive and no such provision shall
be enforceable in any form other than one specifically designated by the
NEA or its affiliates.
Principle I–Commitment to the Student. The educator strives to help each
student realize his or her potential as a worthy and effective member of
society. The educator therefore works to stimulate the spirit of inquiry, the
acquisition of knowledge and understanding, and the thoughtful
formulation of worthy goals.
In fulfillment of the obligation to the student, the educator
a. shall not unreasonably restrain the student from independent actions in
the pursuit of learning;
b. shall not unreasonably deny the student access to varying points of
view;
c. shall not deliberately suppress or distort subject matter relevant to the
student’s progress;
d. shall make reasonable effort to protect the student from conditions
harmful to learning or to health and safety;
e. shall not intentionally expose the student to embarrassment or
disparagement;

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f. shall not on the basis of race, color, creed, sex, national origin, marital
status, political or religious beliefs, family, social or cultural
background, or sexual orientation, unfairly:
1. exclude any student from participation in any program;
2. deny benefits to any student;
3. grant any advantage to any student.
g. shall not use professional relationships with students for private
advantage;
h. shall not disclose information about students obtained in the course of
professional service, unless disclosure serves a compelling
professional purpose or is required by law.
Principle II–Commitment to the Profession. The education profession is
vested by the public with a trust and responsibility requiring the highest
ideals of professional service.
In the belief that the quality of the services of the education profession
directly influences the nation and its citizens, the educator shall exert every
effort to raise professional standards, to promote a climate that encourages
the exercise of professional judgment, to achieve conditions that attract
persons worthy of the trust to careers in education, and to assist in
preventing the practice of the profession by unqualified persons.
In fulfillment of the obligation to the profession, the educator
a. shall not in an application for a professional position deliberately
make a false statement or fail to disclose a material fact related to
competency and qualifications;
b. shall not misrepresent his/her professional qualifications;
c. shall not assist entry into the profession of a person known to be
unqualified in respect to character, education, or other relevant attribute;
d. shall not knowingly make a false statement concerning the
qualifications of a candidate for a professional position;
e. shall not assist a non-educator in the unauthorized practice of teaching;
f. shall not disclose information about colleagues obtained in the course
of professional service unless disclosure serves a compelling
professional purpose or is required by law;
g. shall not knowingly make false or malicious statements about a
colleague;

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h. shall not accept any gratuity, gift, or favor that might impair or
appear to influence professional decisions or actions.
Source: National Education Association. (1975). Code of ethics of the educational profession.
Adopted by the NEA Representative Assembly. Excerpt reprinted by permission of the
Association.
5. What are some Contemporary Professional Terminologies?
Academy - American secondary school during colonial times; stressed
practical subjects.
Accountability - responsibility related to quality of educational programs.
Accreditation - acknowledgment by an outside group that an educational
institution or program meets certain standards.
Administrative Hierarchy - administrative organization of a local school
district.
Aesthetics - philosophy related to beauty.
Alternative Certification - teacher licensure obtained through means
other than traditional coursework in education courses.
American College Testing Program (ACT) - college entrance exam used
by many universities.
American Federation of Teachers (AFT) - a national teachers’
organization second only to the National Education Association in
membership.
Assistant Principal - administrative position in an individual school that
primarily assists the principal in administrative duties.
Assistant Superintendent - administrative position in a school district
that primarily assists the superintendent in administrative duties.
Attitude - preconceived notions or ideas that affect behavior toward
certain groups of people or programs.
Audiovisual Kit - instructional materials, usually in the form of filmstrips,
tapes, and other audiovisual items and printed information.
Axiology - area of philosophy that focuses on values.
Back-to-the-Basics - movement to return schools to emphasizing basic
academic subjects in the curriculum.
Behaviorism - educational philosophy and practice that emphasizes
reinforcing appropriate behavior or learning. Includes the concepts of
stimulus and response.

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Bilingual Education - educational programs aimed at providing equal
opportunities to limited-English-speaking students.
Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge - bill presented by
Thomas Jefferson in Virginia that would have made three years of
elementary education available for all children. Although defeated, this bill
laid the foundation for public education.
Board of Education - a group of citizens at the local and state levels,
usually elected but occasionally appointed, that set policies for schools.
Building Level Administration - administration of individual schools
(usually the principal).
Burnout - the process of losing interest and motivation in teaching or
other fields.
Cardinal Principles - seven goals for secondary education developed by
the NEA in the early 20th
century.
Career Education - a concept that aims at preparing students for
adulthood, with emphasis on careers and vocation; can be infused into
existing curricula K-12.
Carnegie Report - a report issued by a task force organized by the
Carnegie Foundation with suggestions for revising teacher education.
Career Ladder - a system of incentives developed for teachers to improve
and reward their professional skills.
Categorical Aid - financial assistance provided to local schools for
specific programs or purposes.
Censorship - the act of censoring materials such as library books and
textbooks.
Central office - refers to the district administration level of local school
districts.
Certification - teacher licensure.
Change Agent - a role of school administrators related to making and
influencing innovations in schools.
Closed-Circuit Television - a form of educational technology using a
television and video camera.
Colonial Period - period in American education from 1607 to 1788.
Committee of Fifteen - a committee appointed in 1895 by the National
Education Association that reversed the findings of the Committee of Ten.

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Common School - free, publicly supported schools for all children;
movement began in the mid 1800s.
Competency - ability to perform certain skills at appropriate levels.
Comprehensive High School - secondary schools that provide a variety of
curricular options for students.
Compulsory Education – legal, mandated education for all students
within certain age groups.
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) - programmed instruction using a
computer.
Computer Science - the study of computers and computer programming.
Conservative Movement - movement to influence educational programs
by conservative groups.
Consolidation - combining smaller school districts into larger districts.
Core Curriculum - required curriculum for all students.
Creation-Science - the study of the development of humanity based on the
Bible.
Cultural Pluralism - a society composed of many varied cultures forming
a unified cultural group.
Curriculum - all experiences provided to students in schools.
Declining Enrollments - trend in schools during the past decade.
Department of Education - cabinet-level office within the federal
government responsible for education.
Discipline - actions in response to inappropriate behavior or actions that
prevent inappropriate behaviors.
Due Process - procedural safeguards afforded students, parents, and
teachers that protects individual rights.
Educational Philosophy - application of formal philosophy to the field of
education.
Educational Technology - technology applied to educational practices,
primarily instruction.
Educational Television - educational programs broadcast by either
commercial stations or specialized educational networks that emphasize
educational subjects.
Education Trends - forecasted patterns in education.

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Elementary Schools - grades 1-6 or K-6.
English Grammar School - model of elementary education in colonial
America.
Enlightenment Period - period in Europe during 18th
century.
Epistemology - branch of philosophy that focuses on the nature of
knowledge.
Essentialism - area of philosophy that believes a common core of
knowledge and ideals should be the focus of the curriculum.
Ethics - philosophy that studies values.
Evaluation - assessing the quality and effectiveness of programs for
individuals and groups.
Evolution - the study of the development of humanity based on scientific
data that proposes human beings developed from lower life forms.
Exceptional Children - students with disabilities or talents that require
specialized programs.
Existentialism - philosophy that emphasizes individuals and individual
decision making.
Federal Government – national government that is centrally located in
Washington DC.
Federal Role - role of the federal government in education.
Formula Grants - educational funding based on the number of children
eligible for various programs.
Fringe Benefits - any number of benefits provided employees in addition
to salary. Examples include insurance programs, retirement programs, and
liability insurance.
Full-Time Equivalency (FTE) - funding model used at many universities
where programs are funded based on the number of full-time students
enrolled.
Futurism - study of the future, including global concerns and more
regional or local matters.
General Curriculum - basic curriculum required of all students.
Geopolitics - political status of all countries in the world.
Gifted and Talented - a group of students whose abilities are above those
of most students; these students require specialized programs.

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Global Trends - forecasted developments that have an impact on the
entire world, such as geopolitics, hunger, population.
Graded Schools - schools organized using a step system whereby students
are usually grouped related to chronological age rather than abilities.
Graduation Requirements - courses and competencies required of all
students for graduation.
Handicapped Children - students who deviate from the norm due to
physical, emotional, or mental disabilities.
History of Education - historical study of education.
Holmes Group - a group of about 100 research universities that issued a
report calling for major reforms in teacher education.
Hornbook - a single page, usually attached to a wooden paddle,
containing the alphabet, syllables, a prayer, and other simple words; this
“book” was used extensively in colonial schools.
Idealism - a philosophy that emphasizes global ideas related to moral
teachings.
Individualized Educational Program (IEP) - individual program of
study mandated by federal and state laws for all handicapped students in
special education programs.
Individualized Instruction - instruction designed to meet the needs of an
individual student. Every student’s individualized program is different.
Instructional Television - televised lessons broadcast for schools usually
on educational television.
Intermediate Unit - a level of educational organization between local
school districts and the state department of education.
Kindergarten - school programs for pre-school age children; term coined
by Froebel.
Latin Grammar School - secondary school whose curriculum
emphasized Latin and Greek and focused on preparing students for
college.
Learning Disability - a handicapping condition where students of average
or above-average intelligence have difficulty with academic subjects.
Least-Restrictive Environment - educational setting that is closest to a
normal classroom for handicapped learners.

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Legislation - acts passed by state legislatures and Congress that become
laws.
Litigation - court actions, suits.
Local Education Agency (LEA) - local school districts. This is the basic
educational unit in all states.
Mainstreaming - the practice of integrating handicapped students into
regular classrooms and programs as much as possible; implementation of
the least-restrictive environment.
Measurement - another term used interchangeably with evaluation.
Medieval Period - period in Europe from 476 to 1300.
Melting Pot Theory - theory that people from all cultures form a common
culture.
Mental Retardation - handicapping condition related to intellectual
deficits; usually defined in terms of limited IQ scores and adaptive
behavior.
Merit Pay - salary paid to an employee based on the employee’s abilities
or competencies, regardless of number of years of services.
Metaphysics - philosophy that studies the nature of reality.
Microcomputer - personalized computer the approximate size of a
television set or smaller.
Middle School - an organized educational unit between elementary school
and high school; usually includes grades 5-8.
Mill - a tenth of a cent or a thousandth of a dollar. Used to assess the rate
of property taxes.
Minimum Competency Testing - evaluations to determine if students
have minimum skills necessary for progressing to the next grade or
graduation.
Minimum Foundation Program - funding model found in most states
that attempts to guarantee a basic educational program for children funded
at an average minimal level.
Monitorial Schools - school model where brightest students were
instructed and in turn they taught other students.
Motivation - willingness or drive to accomplish something.

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Nation at Risk Report (1983) - national report developed by the National
Commission that indicated public education in the United States has
serious problems.
National Commission on Education - a study group formed in the early
1980s to investigate the status of public education in the United States.
National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education
(NCATE) - accreditation agency that certifies the quality of teacher
education programs nationwide.
National Education Association (NEA) - largest teachers’ organization in
the United States.
National Period - period in American education from 1788 to the present.
Negative Reinforcement - removal of an aversive stimulus when
appropriate behavior is exhibited.
New England Primer - early textbook used in colonial schools.
New Right - term used to refer to extremely conservative groups that
attempt to influence educational programs.
Nongraded School - an organizational pattern for schools that use
students’ abilities for grouping rather than assigning students to certain
grades based on chronological age.
Normal School - first college training programs that prepared teachers.
Northwest Ordinance - early legislation passed by the national
government prior to the ratification of the United States Constitution.
Open Classroom - physical organization of schools where room dividers
are deleted; students are educated in groups in large, open areas.
Overpopulation - a condition when there are more people than a
particular land mass can accommodate.
Paraprofessional - teachers’ aides and others who assist teachers in
educational programs.
Parent Teachers Association (PTA) - national organization composed of
parents and teachers that advocates for public education.
Pedagogy - science and art of teaching.
Perennialism - educational philosophy that believes in the existence of
unchanging universal truths.
Personnel Evaluation - evaluation of individual teachers and
administrators.

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Philosophy of Education - application of philosophy to educational
programs and practices.
Piagetian Theory - theory of child development based on the writing of
Jean Piaget.
Population Trends - forecasted patterns of population growth and decline.
Pragmatism - philosophy that focuses on practical application of
knowledge; John Dewey was a leading proponent.
Principal - administrator in charge of individual schools.
Program Evaluation - evaluation of specific programs regarding their
effectiveness.
Progressive Tax - a tax where individuals with higher incomes pay more
taxes than individuals with lower incomes.
Progressivism - educational philosophy emphasizing experiences.
Property Assessment - determination of property values to assign taxes to
individuals.
Property Tax - taxes assessed on local properties used to finance public
education.
Proportional Tax - taxes that require individuals to pay the same
percentage of their incomes regardless of income level.
Public law 94-142 - Education for All Handicapped Children Act. Passed
in 1975, this act mandates a free, appropriate public education for all
handicapped children.
Public Law 99-457 - a federal law passed in 1986 that mandates schools
to serve children with disabilities, ages 3-5, by 1990-1991.
Punishment - application of something unpleasant to a child following
inappropriate behavior.
Puritan Influence - influence over education by Puritans in the New
England colonies during colonial America.
Realism - philosophy that emphasizes natural sciences and gaining
knowledge through experiences.
Reform Movements of the 1980s - educational reforms initiated in the
early 1980s in response to several national reports concerning the quality
of public education.
Reinforcement - stimulus provided following a behavior; may be positive
or negative.

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Reinforcement Schedule - schedule used to determine when reinforcers
are given to a person.
Regressive Tax - taxes where persons with lower incomes pay
proportionally more taxes than individuals with higher incomes.
Reliability - the technical aspect of a test that indicates that students’
scores will be stable over time.
Renaissance and Reformation - period in Europe between 1300 and
1700.
School Counselor - professionals in schools who provide counseling for
students who need affective intervention.
School Social Worker - social worker who works in schools to provide
social work services to students and their families.
School Superintendent - chief school administrator at the local district
level; usually appointed by the local board of education.
Secondary Reinforcer - a reinforcer paired with a primary reinforcer
designed to influence behavior after the primary reinforcer is no longer
provided.
Secondary Schools - schools that provide educational programs for older
students; usually includes grades 9-12 or 10-12.
Secretary of Education - cabinet-level official in charge of the United
States Department of Education.
Self-Contained Classroom - classroom organization where students
remain in the same room with the same teacher all day.
Sexism - practice of discrimination based on gender.
Shaping - the process of providing reinforcers to alter a child’s behavior
into appropriate forms.
Software - computer programs.
Special Education - specialized programs developed for the education of
children with disabilities.
Standardized Test - a test that is norm-referenced and has specific
administration standards so scores can be compared.
State Department of Education - state unit responsible for public and
private educational programs in states.
Symbolic Representation - most abstract of representation commonly
referred to as verbal learning or problem solving.

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Superintendent - chief school administrative officer in local school
districts.
Supervisor - administrator responsible for specific programs in public
schools, e.g., supervisor of special education, vocational education
supervisor, supervisor of elementary education.
Supply and Demand - comparison between the number of teachers
trained and the number needed for open positions.
Taxes - payments to a government to pay for various services.
Tax Revolt - movement to decrease taxes during the 1970s.
Tax Sources - sources of tax revenue.
Teacher Education - programs designed to train prospective teachers in
pedagogy.
Teacher Testing - a movement begun in Arkansas in the early 1980s to
test teachers in basic skills.
Teacher Unions - teachers’ organizations that lobby for educational
programs and teachers’ rights and benefits. The NEA and AFT are the two
largest national teacher unions in the United States.
Teacher Unit - a method of funding public education programs based on
the number of teachers needed for a particular district or program.
Technology - use of technical materials and equipment in schools.
Tenth Amendment United States Constitution - amendment that
reserves to states areas not specifically mentioned in the Constitution.
Tenure - an employee benefit that makes it difficult to terminate someone;
usually provided to teachers after several years of successful teaching
experience.
Textbook Censorship - the process of groups determining which
textbooks meet their standards.
Tracking - practice of channeling students into certain courses based on
ability levels.
Ungraded Schools - school organization where students progress based on
their ability level rather than chronological age.
Validity - technical aspect of tests indicating that they measure what they
purport to measure.
Values Clarification - a teaching program that focuses on students
understanding and expressing their own values.

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Videocassette Technology - equipment consisting of a television and
videocassette camera for use in educational settings.
Vocational Education - programs that emphasize career preparation.
Training of students for particular jobs or skills.
Weighted Pupil Method – a method of state funding for public education
based on the needs of types of students.
6. What are some specific guidelines for conducting educational research
relative to field studies and/or projects?
a. Parts of a Proposal
1. Title
2. Introduction to the Study
3. Review of the Literature
4. Statement of the Problem
5. Purpose of the Study
6. Research Questions and/or Hypotheses
7. Definitions
8. Assumptions
9. Limitations
10. Methodology
11. Significance of the Study
12. References
b. Parts of a Field Study, Thesis, or Dissertation
1. Title Page
2. Abstract
3. Table of Contents
4. Chapter 1 Introduction to the Study
Statement of the Problem, Purpose of the Study, Research
Questions and/or Hypotheses, Definitions, Assumptions,
Limitations, Significance of the Study. Note: This is basically the
proposal minus the review of the literature and minus the
methodology.
5. Chapter 2 Review of the Literature

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6. Chapter 3 Methods and Procedures
Expanded and detailed (Subjects, Instrument, Procedures,
Tabulation of Data, Treatment of Data).
7. Chapter 4 Analysis of Data or Results of Study
Demographic information of sample or population results-raw data
in prose and graph or chart form summary of results.
8. Chapter 5 Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Summarize results, make conclusions, make recommendations
based on findings, and recommend further study on topic or similar
topic.
9. References
10. Appendix
Possibly make a list of where specific tables, charts or graphs are
located.
c. A Research Proposal: The Framework for a Study
1. Title
a. Uses enough descriptive words to catalog it by ERIC and
Resources in education.
b. Example: The effects of collective negotiations on teacher job
satisfaction in the Vermilion Parish School District
2. Introduction to the Study
Short attention getting. Describes what the proposal will cover and
makes the reader interested in the topic of interest. A brief
background of where the study will be conducted could add to the
introduction. Briefly set the stage for the study. Keep it brief;
remember this is a proposal not the completed study; one to two
pages.
3. Review of the Literature
This part of the proposal reviews relevant info and relevant
literature pertaining to your topic. Previous research and previous
literature should be included. Five to 15 citations are normally
enough for a proposal. Try to keep citations RELEVANT AND
RECENT; two to six pages.
4. Statement of the Problem

PAGE 52
a. This part of the proposal logically sets up the underlying
intellectual motives for you doing the research on this specific
topic and this specific problem
b. Example: There appears to be opposing conclusions in the
research concerning collective bargaining and its effect upon
the plight of the teacher. Smith (1992) found that bargaining
had not benefited teachers. Jones (1994) noted that bargaining
had greatly enhanced teacher morale. (Opposing conclusions
are a good way to set up the statement of the problem.)
5. Purpose of the Study
a. Succinctly describe what the research intends to find.
b. Example: The purpose of this study is to determine the extent
to which the collective bargaining process has influenced
teacher job satisfaction levels; one paragraph.
6. Research Questions
a. State the specific questions that the study will attempt to
answer. Here you are breaking down the PURPOSE OF THE
STUDY into several relevant research questions. Keep in mind
that the statement of the problem, purpose of the study, and
research questions must all fall logically in line.
b. Examples:
1. What was the level of teacher job satisfaction before
bargaining rights.
2. What was the level of teacher job satisfaction after
bargaining rights.
3. Was there a significant mean change in teacher job
satisfaction following the acquisition of collective bargaining
rights.
7. Hypotheses
a. Puts the research questions in statistical terms.
b. Example: There is no significant difference in teacher job
satisfaction following the acquisition of bargaining rights.
8. Definitions
a. Here you will define terms specific to your study that the
outside reader would not be familiar with. Also specifically
operationally define general terms that you assume all would

SCHOOLING (2002)
PAGE 53
know but might be different in different school districts in the
region, state, or nation.
b. Examples:
1. Vermilion Parish School District - This is a mostly rural
school district in southwestern Louisiana comprised of 1300
sq. miles. The district serves 10,000 students and employs
500 teachers.
2. VAE - The school district affiliate of the National
Educational Association. Sixty-nine percent of all
Vermilion teachers belong to this organization.
3. Teacher(s) - Those persons employed in the school district
with the primary objective being the academic instruction of
students. This does not include librarians and counselors in
this specific study.
9. Assumptions
a. Any assumed aspect that you the researcher may make should
be noted and stated.
b. Examples:
1. The instrument used in this study will accurately measure
the job satisfaction levels of teachers.
2. Teachers will objectively answer the questions posed to
them in the study.
10. Limitations
a. Any boundary or limitation of the study should be stated.
b. Examples:
1. The study will measure levels of teacher job satisfaction in
only one school district.
2. The findings of this study may not be generalized to other
settings due to unique characteristics of the school district.
3. Teachers surveyed may vary in years of experience.
11. Methodology
Four parts to methodology section of proposal.

PAGE 54
a. Subjects - Describe subjects or sample (who and where). You
may describe population within this part; two to three
paragraphs.
b. Instrument - Describe instrument or test and specific materials.
Validity and reliability may be discussed; two to three
paragraphs.
c. Procedures - Describe a step-by-step process of what you plan
to do. Timeline and permission to do study may be mentioned.
d. Data Analysis - Describe how you will analyze the data. What
type of stat test will be used, will you compare means, will you
have charts or graphs; one to two paragraphs.
Note: A research proposal is only the framework for your
study. Be brief but concise enough to let your major
advisor know what it is you intend to undertake. A
proposal is usually 7-12 pages in length. Quality not
quantity.
12. Significance of the Study
a. State why this study is important and worthy of the time and
effort that will go into it. Validate the reasoning behind doing a
specific study of this type in this region, district, or state.
b. Examples:
1. Data derived from this study will serve as a guide to school
districts in similar settings that are also considering the
collective bargaining process.
2. This study will also provide information on a topic that has
largely been ignored in the research and literature.
13. References
Five to 15 are usually enough for a proposal (RELEVANT,
RECENT, APA).
d. Add the following to your proposal and you will have the completed
field study.
1. The Abstract
A one page summary of the complete study. This becomes page 2
of the completed study.

SCHOOLING (2002)
PAGE 55
2. Expand the Review of the Literature
This will become Chapter 2 of the completed study.
3. Expand the Methodology
Title it “Methods and Procedures.” Go into detail on what was
done in the study. This becomes Chapter 3 of your completed
study. You may have to change some things.
4. Add Chapter 4
Title it “Analysis of Data.” Briefly describe in prose and in
chart/graph form the numerical results of the study. Do not explain
or summarize or conclude in this chapter. Save your thoughts for
the next chapter. Merely show and tell how the results turned out
without a big brainstorm on why they turned out as they did.
5. Add Chapter 5
Title it “Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations.” Here is
where you will summarize the results of the study, but then you
also may put yourself into it and explain why the results turned out
as they did. Here is the chance you have been waiting for to
brainstorm and play the part of the expert. Here you tell why you
think it turned out as it did. Try to consider all factors and all
variables that could have played upon and influenced the
dependent variable. You may choose to be even more scholarly
and recommend further study on this topic to other aspiring
researchers. Further study could probably be done on this issue at
another school or in a slightly different manner.
Source: This section originally conceived and developed by Dr. Neil T. Faulk. It was further
refined by Dr. William Kritsonis and edited by Dr. Joe Savoie.
7. What components of discipline are imperative for all teachers?
a. background information needed for understanding discipline problems:
1. discipline problems are not new;
2. discipline problems as viewed by new teachers:
a. students try out a new teacher;
b. many new teachers try unrealistic approaches;
c. the new teacher is unfamiliar with the local situation;
d. new teachers often feel insecure;
e. schools where new teachers likely to work;

PAGE 56
3. discipline problems and the experienced teacher;
4. solutions to discipline problems are being sought;
5. knowing what the role of the teacher is.
b. information a teacher should remember about the psychology of
misbehavior:
1. discipline problems arise from:
a. boredom;
b. frustration;
c. rebellion;
d. insecurity;
2. teachers can help by:
a. accepting the fact that performance varies;
b. being a compassionate human;
c. giving students a part in rule making.
c. kinds of social problems that relate to sociology impact discipline:
1. urbanization;
2. family changes;
3. job situation;
4. mobility;
5. parental attitude towards school and teachers;
6. changing view toward authority.
d. the principal’s role in school discipline includes:
1. helper of:
a. responsibility;
b. self-interest;
c. position;
2. an enforcer;
3. a referrer.
e. legal implications for handling discipline problems in schools are:
1. due process;
2. laws deal with several areas:

SCHOOLING (2002)
PAGE 57
a. search and seizure;
b. dress code;
c. corporal punishment;
3. teachers must operate within the law;
4. disciple policy;
5. minor offense regulations;
6. elementary school regulations;
7. other offenses;
8. suspension regulations;
9. reinstatement of student on short-term suspension;
10. long-term suspension procedure;
11. suspension hearings;
12. expulsion procedures;
13. status and rehabilitation of suspended and expelled students.
f. types of behaviors in school occur from:
1. anti-social behavior (the basic problem):
a. vandalism;
b. fighting;
c. classroom disruption;
d. stealing, cheating, and others;
2. the goal is intelligent self-control: take students as they are.
g. behavioral problems: some reasons why students act the way they do:
1. students feel an obligation to try out the teacher;
2. certain students are not interested in the material being studied;
3. everybody needs recognition as a person;
4. some problems have an academic base;
5. many students are born conformists;
6. many students bring resentments to school;
7. to many youngsters, rebellion is part of growth.
h. teachers can avoid contributing to discipline problems in schools by:

PAGE 58
1. being organized;
2. being definite;
3. being natural;
4. acting as an adult at all times;
5. being consistent and fair;
6. developing a thick skin;
7. avoiding arguments;
8. avoiding temper fits;
9. developing a set of values;
10. not threatening;
11. avoiding humiliating the pupil if possible;
12. giving students responsibility if they can handle it;
13. not rushing to give absolution.
i. “If you can’t control ’em, you can’t learn ’em”–things teachers can do
to control discipline:
1. know the law as it applies to disciplinary matters;
2. know the local customs and conditions regarding discipline;
3. keep an eye on seating arrangements;
4. be sure that everyone has something to do;
5. vary the activities;
6. think positively;
7. be a human being;
8. avoid group indictments;
9. try to maintain good rapport with student leaders;
10. avoid using school work for punishment;
11. keep referrals to a minimum;
12. so far as possible, make corrections privately;
13. learn as much as you can about the students;
14. work with parents as appropriate;
15. don’t look for the end of the list.

SCHOOLING (2002)
PAGE 59
Source: Kritsonis, W. (2000). School discipline: The art of survival. Illustrated by Lawrence A.
Rybicki. Ashland, OH: BookMasters, Inc.
E. REVIEW ITEMS
True-False
1. Approximately one-third of today’s teachers possess a master’s degree.
2. Graduation requirements vary greatly from state to state.
3. One reason for the decline in the number of education majors has been the
lack of jobs.
4. In most states today, the minimum education required to become a
certified teacher is the Associate of Arts degree.
5. Many different groups have accused teachers of being the major cause of
problems in public education.
Multiple Choice
1. Since 1970, enrollment in teacher education programs has _______.
a. dropped slightly b. dropped sharply c. increased slightly
d. increased sharply
2. Teacher education programs have traditionally attracted students who
_______.
a. are not as academically talented as other majors
b. are significantly more academically talented as other majors
c. are academically indistinguishable from other majors
d. none of the above
3. The number of states that have requirements for recertification is _______.
a. 10 b. 20 c. 30 d. 40

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