1. Chapter 8
Switching
8.1
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2. Figure 8.1 Switched network
A network is a set of connected devices ,Point to point connection, Mesh
topology, as the no. of devices and the distance increased, beyond the
capacities of the media and equipment, switching is a better solution.
8.2

3. Figure 8.2 Taxonomy of switched networks
Each switch stores the
whole message and
forwards it to the next
switch
8.3

4. 8-1 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches
connected by physical links. A connection between two
stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links.
However, each connection uses only one dedicated
channel on each link. Each link is normally divided
into n channels by using FDM or TDM.
Topics discussed in this section:
Three Phases
Efficiency
Delay
Circuit-Switched Technology in Telephone Networks
8.4

5. Figure 8.3 A trivial circuit-switched network
8.5

6. Note
A circuit-switched network is made of a
set of switches connected by physical
links, in which each link is divided into
n channels.
In circuit switching, the resources need
to be reserved during the setup phase;
the resources remain dedicated for the
entire duration of data transfer until the
teardown phase.
8.6

7. Note
A circuit-switched takes place at the physical
layer.
Before starting communication, station make a
reservation for resources
- channels, switch buffers, SW processing time
 Data transferred between the two stations
are not packetized(data are a continuous flow.
There is no addressing involved during
data transfer. Switches route the data
based on their FDM(band) & TDM(time slot).
8.7

8. Example 8.1
As a trivial example, let us use a circuit-switched network
to connect eight telephones in a small area.
Communication is through 4-kHz voice channels. We
assume that each link uses FDM to connect a maximum
of two voice channels. The bandwidth of each link is then
8 kHz. Figure 8.4 shows the situation. Telephone 1 is
connected to telephone 7; 2 to 5; 3 to 8; and 4 to 6. Of
course the situation may change when new connections
are made. The switch controls the connections.
8.8

9. Figure 8.4 Circuit-switched network used in Example 8.1
8.9

10. Example 8.2
As another example, consider a circuit-switched network
that connects computers in two remote offices of a private
company. The offices are connected using a T-1 line
leased from a communication service provider. There are
two 4 × 8 (4 inputs and 8 outputs) switches in this
network. For each switch, four output ports are folded
into the input ports to allow communication between
computers in the same office. Four other output ports
allow communication between the two offices. Figure 8.5
shows the situation.
8.10

11. Figure 8.5 Circuit-switched network used in Example 8.2
8.11

12. Three phases ( Circuit switched )
communication in a circuit switching requires 3 phases:
1- connection setup 2- data transfer 3- connection teardown
Setup: creating dedicated channels to the switches
device A to device M
after connection , a channel is exists between I, IV, III
acknowledgement signal is moved from M to A in opposite direction
Data Transfer : After establishment of the dedicated circuit, data is transferred.
Teardown : When one of the parties needs to disconnect, a signal is sent to each
switch to release the resources.
8.12

13. Figure 8.6 Delay in a circuit-switched network
8.13

14. Note
Switching at the physical layer in the
traditional telephone network uses
the circuit-switching approach.
8.14

15. 8-2 DATAGRAM NETWORKS
In data communications, we need to send messages
from one end system to another. If the message is
going to pass through a packet-switched network, it
needs to be divided into packets of fixed or variable
size. The size of the packet is determined by the
network and the governing protocol. Datagram are
treated at the network layer
Topics discussed in this section:
Routing Table
Efficiency
Delay
Datagram Networks in the Internet
8.15

16. Note
In a packet-switched network, there
is no resource reservation;
resources are allocated on demand.
(First come, first served)
Each packet is treated as a separate
packet even if it is a part of a group of
packets
8.16

17. Figure 8.7 A datagram network with four switches (routers)
Router
8.17

18. Figure 8.8 Routing table in a datagram network
Since there is no setup or
teardown phases, how the
packet reaches thir destination
Each switch has a routing table,
R.T. are dynamic and are
updated periodically, each
packet has a destination address
which is examined by the switch,
the routing table is consulted to
find the corresponding port
through which the packet should
be forward.
8.18

19. Note
A switch in a datagram network uses a
routing table that is based on the
destination address.
The destination address in the header of
a packet in a datagram network
remains the same during the entire
journey of the packet.
8.19

20. Note
Efficiency :it is better than circuit switched network,
because resources can be allocated to other packets
from other resources if there is a delay before another
packet can be sent.
Delay is greater than a virtual circuit network, each
packet may experience a wait at a switch before it is
forward.
The delay of the packets is not uniform, because it
doesn’t travel through the same switches
8.20

21. Figure 8.9 Delay in a datagram network
Total delay= 3 Transmission (3T) + 3 propagation (3t)+w1 + w2
t
8.21

22. Note
Switching in the Internet is done by
using the datagram approach
to packet switching at
the network layer.
8.22

23. 8-3 VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS
A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuitswitched network and a datagram network. It has
some characteristics of both.
 3 steps : setup, data transfer, and tear down
 Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, or
on demand as in datagram network.
data are packetized , each packet has an address, address
has a local jurisdiction( defines what should be the next
switch and the channel on which the packet is being carried.
 all packet follow the same path established during setup
 V.C.N is implemented in the data link layer.
 circuit switched implemented in the physical layer.
Datagram are implemented at the network layer.
8.23

24. Figure 8.10 Virtual-circuit network
The source or destination can be computer , packet switch, bridge, ect.
8.24

25. Addressing
A virtual-circuit network has two types of addressing:
Global Addressing
Source or destination has An address which is unique in the
scope of network, it is used to create the virtual-circuit
identifier
Local Addressing (Virtual – Circuit identifier)
It is a small no. that has only switch scope, its used by the frame
between two switches. When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a
VCI, when it leaves it has a different VCI
8.25

26. Figure 8.11 Virtual-circuit identifier
8.26

27. 3 phases
Setup , data transfer, tear down
Setup : the source and destination uses their global
address to help switches make table entries for the
connection, it has two phases:
1- setup request
2- setup acknowledgment
Data transfer : to transfer a frame from A to B, all
switches have a table entry for this virtual circuit
Tear down : the source and destination inform the
switches to delete the corresponding entry.
8.27

28. Figure 8.12 Switch and tables in a virtual-circuit network
8.28

29. Figure 8.13 Source-to-destination data transfer in a virtual-circuit network
8.29

30. Figure 8.14 Setup request in a virtual-circuit network
Outgoing VCI will be determined during acknowledgment step
* Source A sends a setup frame to switch 1
8.30

31. Figure 8.15 Setup acknowledgment in a virtual-circuit network
The Ack frame completes the entries in the switching tables
The Ack carries the global addresses (S&D) so the switch know which
entry in the table is to be completed
8.31

32. Teardown phase:
After sending all frames, source A sends a
teardown request. Destination B respond
with a teardown confirmation frame. All
switches delete the corresponding entry
from their tables.
In virtual-circuit switching, all packets
belonging to the same source and
destination travel the same path;
but the packets may arrive at the destination
with different delays
if resource allocation is on demand.
8.32

33. Teardown phase:
After sending all frames, source A sends a teardown request.
Destination B respond with a teardown confirmation frame.
All switches delete the corresponding entry from their tables.
8.33

34. Figure 8.16 Delay in a virtual-circuit network
8.34

35. Note
Switching at the data link layer in a
switched WAN is normally
implemented by using
virtual-circuit techniques.
8.35

36. 8-4 STRUCTURE OF A SWITCH
We use switches in circuit-switched and packetswitched networks. In this section, we discuss the
structures of the switches used in each type of
network.
Topics discussed in this section:
Structure of Circuit Switches : it uses 2 technologies
1- space division switch
2- Time division switch.
8.36

37. Note
Space division Switch: paths in the circuit are separated
from one another spatially.
Crossbar switch: it connects n inputs to m outputs in a grid
using electronic micro switches ( transistors) at each
crosspoint ( ex 1000 I/p to 1000 o/p requires 1000000 switch
Which is impractical.
Multistage switch : combines crossbar switches in several
stages ( multiple paths inside the switch to dectrese the no.
of crosspoints.
8.37

38. Figure 8.17 Crossbar switch with three inputs and four outputs
8.38

39. Figure 8.18 Multistage switch
8.39

40. Note
N/n(nxk)+k(N/nXN/n)+N/n(kxn)
In a three-stage switch, the total
number of crosspoints is
2kN + k(N/n)2
which is much smaller than the number of
crosspoints in a single-stage switch (N2).
8.40

41. Example 8.3
Design a three-stage, 200 × 200 switch (N = 200) with
k = 4 and n = 20.
Solution
In the first stage we have N/n or 10 crossbars, each of size
20 × 4. In the second stage, we have 4 crossbars, each of
size 10 × 10. In the third stage, we have 10 crossbars,
each of size 4 × 20. The total number of crosspoints is
2kN + k(N/n)2, or 2000 crosspoints. This is 5 percent of
the number of crosspoints in a single-stage switch (200 ×
200 = 40,000).
8.41

42. Multistage Drawback
Blocking during periods of heavy traffic.
Blocking refers to times when one input cannot be connected to an output because
there is no path available between them –all possible intermediate switches are
occupied
Note
According to the Clos criterion:
condition for nonblocking
n = (N/2)1/2
k > 2n – 1
Crosspoints (clos) ≥ 4N [(2N)1/2 – 1]
Crosspoints
8.42
= 2kN + k(N/n)2

43. Example 8.4
Redesign the previous three-stage, 200 × 200 switch,
using the Clos criteria with a minimum number of
crosspoints.
Solution
We let n = (200/2)1/2, or n = 10. We calculate k = 2n − 1 =
19. In the first stage, we have 200/10, or 20, crossbars,
each with 10 × 19 crosspoints. In the second stage, we
have 19 crossbars, each with 10 × 10 crosspoints. In the
third stage, we have 20 crossbars each with 19 × 10
crosspoints. The total number of crosspoints is 20(10 ×
19) + 19(10 × 10) + 20(19 ×10) = 9500.
8.43

44. Time Division Switch
Uses time division multiplexing (TDM) inside a switch. It
uses the technology of TSI(time-slot interchange)
8.44

45. Figure 8.19 Time-slot interchange
Time Division Switch
Uses time division multiplexing (TDM) inside a switch. It
uses the technology of TSI(time-slot interchange)
8.45

46. Figure 8.20 Time-space-time switch
Combination takes the advantages of both( instantaneous & nocrossbar
8.46

47. Figure 8.21 Packet switch components
It has 4 components 1-input ports 2- output ports 3- routing processor 4switching fabric
8.47

48. Figure 8.22 Input port
Bits are constructed from the received signal , packet is decapsulated
from the frame , errors are detected and corrected
8.48

49. Figure 8.23 Output port
Outgoing packets are queued, then the packet is encapsulated in a frame ,
the physical layer functions are applied to the frame to create the signal to
be sent on the line
Routing processor performs the function of the network layer, the destination
address is used to find the address of the next hop and, at the same time, the
output port number from which the packet is sent out.
8.49

50. Switching fabrics
Outgoing packets are queued, then the packet is encapsulated in a frame ,
the physical layer functions are applied to the frame to create the signal to
be sent on the line
Routing processor performs the function of the network layer, the destination
address is used to find the address of the next hop and, at the same time, the
output port number from which the packet is sent out.
8.50

51. Figure 8.24 A banyan switch
8.51

52. Figure 8.25 Examples of routing in a banyan switch
8.52

53. Figure 8.26 Batcher-banyan switch
8.53