1. Lesson 12 DEMAND FORECASTING
Learning outcomes
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
define ‘forecasting’ in contrast to ‘projection’ and ‘
prediction’ distinguish between various types of forecasts
describe the techniques of demand forecasting discuss
the uses and abuses of each technique
Introduction
One of the crucial aspects in which managerial economics differs from
pure economic theory lies in the treatment of risk and uncertainty. Traditional
economic theory assumes a risk-free world of certainty; but the real world
business is full of all sorts of risk and uncertainty. A manager cannot, therefore,
afford to ignore risk and uncertainty. The element of risk is associated with future
which is indefinite and uncertain. To cope with future risk and uncertainty, the
manager needs to predict the future event. The likely future event has to be given
form and content in terms of projected course of variables, i.e. forecasting. Thus,
business forecasting is an essential ingredient of corporate planning. Such
forecasting enables the manager to minimize the element of risk and uncertainty.
Demand forecasting is a specific type of business forecasting.
CONCEPTS OF FORECASTING
The manager can conceptualize the future in definite terms. If he is
concerned with future event- its order, intensity and duration, he can predict the
future. If he is concerned with the course of future variables- like demand, price or
profit, he can project the future. Thus prediction and projection-both have
reference to future; in fact, one supplements the other. Suppose, it is predicted that
there will be inflation (event). To establish the nature of this event, one needs
to consider the projected course of general price index (variable). Exactly in the
same way, the predicted event of business recession has to be established with
reference to the projected course of variables like sales, inventory etc.
Projection is of two types – forward and backward. It is a forward
projection of data variables, which is named forecasting. By contrast,

2. the backward projection of data may be named ‘back casting’, a tool used by the
new economic historians. For practical managers concerned with futurology,
what is relevant is forecasting, the forward projection of data, which
supports the prediction of an event.

3. Thus, if a marketing manager fears demand recession, he must
establish its basis in terms of trends in sales data; he can estimate such trends
through extrapolation of his available sales data. This trend estimation is
an exercise in forecasting.
NEED FOR DEMAND FORECASTING
Business managers, depending upon their functional area, need various
forecasts. They need to forecast demand, supply, price, profit, costs, investment,
and what have you. In this unit, we are concerned with only demand forecasting.
The reason is, the concepts and techniques of demand forecasting
discussed here can be applied anywhere.
The question may arise: Why have we chosen demand forecasting as a
model? What is the use of demand forecasting?
The significance of demand or sales forecasting in the context of
business policy decisions can hardly be overemphasized. Sales constitute the
primary source of revenue for the corporate unit and reduction for sales gives
rise to most of the costs incurred by the fir. Thus sales forecasts are needed for
production planning, inventory planning, profit planning and so on .
Production itself requires the support of men, materials, machines, money and
finance, which will have to be arranged. Thus, manpower planning,
replacement or new investment planning, working capital management and
financial planning—all depend on sales forecasts. Thus demand forecasting is
crucial for corporate planning. The survival and growth of a corporate unit has to be
planned, and for this sales forecasting is the most crucial activity. There is no
choice between forecasting and no-forecasting. The choice exists only with
regard to concepts and techniques of forecasting that we employ. It must be
noted that the purpose of forecasting in general is not to provide an exact future
data with perfect precision, the purpose is just to bring out the range of
possibilities concerning the future under a given set of assumptions. In other
words, it is not the ‘actual future’ but the ‘likely future’ that we build up through
forecasts. Such forecasts do not eliminate, but only help you to reduce the
degree of risk and uncertainties of the future. Forecasting is a step towards that
kind of ‘gursstimation’; it is some sort of an approximation to reality. If the
likely state comes close to the actual state, it means that the forecast is
dependable. If you do not meaningless. A sales forecast is meant to guide
business policy decision. Without forecasting, forward planning by a corporate
unit will be directionless.
STEPS IN DEMAND FORECASTING
Demand or sales forecasting is a scientific exercise. It has to go through a number of
steps. At each step, you have to make critical considerations. Such considerations are
categorically listed below:

4. Nature of forecast: To begin with, you should be clear about the uses of
forecast data- how it is related to forward planning and corporate planning by the
firm. Depending upon its use, you have to choose the type of forecasts: short-
run or long-run, active or passive, conditional or non-conditional etc.
1) Nature of product: The next important consideration is the nature of product
for which you are attempting a demand forecast. You have to examine carefully
whether the product is consumer goods or producer goods, perishable or
durable, final or intermediate demand, new demand or replacement demand type
etc. A couple of examples may illustrate the importance of this factor. The
demand for intermediate goods like basic chemicals is derived from the
final demand for finished goods like detergents. While forecasting the
demand for basic chemicals, it becomes essential to analyse the nature of
demand for detergents. Promoting sales through advertising or price
competition is much less important in the case of intermediate goods
compared to final goods. The elasticity of demand for intermediate goods
depends on their relative importance in the price of the final product.
Time factor is a crucial determinant in demand forecasting.
Perishable commodities such as fresh vegetables and fruits can be sold
over a limited period of time. Here skilful demand forecasting is needed to
avoid waste. If there are storage facilities, then buyers can adjust their
demand according to availability, price and income. The time taken for
such adjustment varies from product to product. Goods of daily necessities
that are bought more frequently will lead to quicker adjustments. Whereas in
case of expensive equipment which is worn out and replaced after a long period
of time, adaptation of demand will be spread over a longer duration of time.
3) Determinants of demand: Once you have identified the nature of product for
which you are to build a forecast, your next task is to locate clearly the
determinants of demand for the product. Depending on the nature of product and
nature of forecasts, different determinants will assume different degree
of importance in different demand functions. In the preceding unit, you have
been exposed to a number of price-income factors or determinants-own price,
related price, own income-disposable and discretionary, related income,
advertisement, price expectation etc. In addition, it is important to consider
socio-psychological determinants, specially demographic, sociological and
psychological factors affecting demand. Without considering these
factors, long-run demand forecasting is not possible.
Such factors are particularly important for long-run active
forecasts. The size of population, the age-composition, the location of household
unit, the sex-composition-all these exercise influence on demand in. varying
degrees. If more babies are born, more will be the demand for toys; if
more youngsters marry, more will be the demand for furniture; if more old
people survive, more will be the demand for sticks. In the same way buyers’
psychology-his need, social status, ego, demonstration effect etc. –also
effect demand. While forecasting, you cannot neglect these factors.

5. 4) Analysis of factors &determinants: Identifying the determinants alone would
not do, their analysis is also important for demand forecasting. In an analysis of
statistical demand function, it is customary to classify the explanatory factors into
(a) trend factors, which affect demand over long-run, (b) cyclical factors whose
effects on demand are periodic in nature, (c) seasonal factors, which are a little
more certain compared to cyclical factors, because there is some regularly with
regard to their occurrence, and (d) random factors which create
disturbance because they are erratic in nature; their operation and effects
are not very orderly.
An analysis of factors is specially important depending upon whether it is
the aggregate demand in the economy or the industry’s demand or the
company’s demand or the consumers; demand which is being predicted. Also,
for a long-run demand forecast, trend factors are important; but for a
short-run demand forecast, cyclical and seasonal factors are important.
5) Choice of techniques: This is a very important step. You have to choose a
particular technique from among various techniques of demand forecasting.
Subsequently, you will be exposed to all such techniques, statistical or otherwise.
You will find that different techniques may be appropriate for forecasting demand for
different products depending upon their nature. In some cases, it may be
possible to use more than one technique. However, the choice of technique has to
be logical and appropriate; for it is a very critical choice. Much of the accuracy and
relevance of the forecast data depends accuracy required, reference period of the
forecast, complexity of the relationship postulated in the demand function, available
time for forecasting exercise, size of cost budget for the forecast etc.
6) Testing accuracy : This is the final step in demand forecasting. There
are various methods for testing statistical accuracy in a given forecast. Some of
them are simple and inexpensive, others quite complex and difficult. This
stating is needed to avoid/reduce the margin of error and thereby improve
its validity for practical decision-making purpose. Subsequently you will be
exposed briefly to some of these methods and their uses.
TECHNIQUES OF DEMAND FORECASTING
Broadly speaking, there are two approaches to demand forecasting- one is to
obtain information about the likely purchase behavior of the buyer through
collecting expert’s opinion or by conducting interviews with consumers, the other is
to use past experience as a guide through a set of statistical techniques. Both these
methods rely on varying degrees of judgment. The first method is usually found
suitable for short-term forecasting, the latter for long-term forecasting. There
are specific techniques which fall under each of these broad methods.
We shall now taker up each one of these techniques under broad
category of methods suggested above.
SIMPLE SURVEY METHODS

6. For forecasting the demand for existing product, such survey methods are often
employed. In this set of methods, we may undertake the following
exercise.
1) Experts’ Opinion Poll : In this method, the experts on the particular product
whose demand is under study are requested to give their ‘opinion’ or ‘feel’ about
the product. These experts, dealing in the same or similar product, are
able to predict the likely sales of a given product in future periods under
different conditions based on their experience. If the number of such experts is
large and their experience-based reactions are different, then an
average-simple or weighted –is found to lead to unique forecasts.
Sometimes this method is also called the ‘hunch method’ but it replaces
analysis by opinions and it can thus turn out to be highly subjective in nature.
2) Reasoned Opinion-Delphi Technique : This is a variant of the opinion poll
method. Here is an attempt to arrive at a consensus in an uncertain area by
questioning a group of experts repeatedly until the responses appear to converge
along a single line. The participants are supplied with responses to previous
questions (including seasonings from others in the group by a coordinator or
a leader or operator of some sort). Such feedback may result in an expert revising
his earlier opinion. This may lead to a narrowing down of the divergent views (of the
experts) expressed earlier. The Delphi Techniques, followed by the Greeks
earlier, thus generates “reasoned opinion” in place of “unstructured opinion”; but this
is still a poor proxy for market behaviour of economic variables.
3) Consumers’ Survey- Complete Enumeration Method : Under this, the
forecaster undertakes a complete survey of all consumers whose demand he
intends to forecast, Once this information is collected, the sales forecasts are
obtained by simply adding the probable demands of all consumers. For example,
if there are N consumers, each
N
demanding D then the total demand forecast is ∑ D i
i = 1
The principle merit of this method is that the forecaster does not introduce any
bias or value judgment of his own. He simply records the data and aggregates.
But it is a very tedious and cumbersome process; it is not feasible where a large
number of consumers are involved.
Moreover if the data are wrongly recorded, this method will be totally useless.
4)Consumer Survey-Sample Survey Method : Under this method,
the forecaster selects a few consuming units out of the relevant population and
then collects data on their probable demands for the product during the
forecast period. The total demand of sample units is finally blown up to generate
the total demand forecast.
Can you give me any example?
Compared to the former survey, this method is less tedious and less costly, and subject to
less data error; but the choice of sample is very critical. If the sample is properly chosen,
then it will yield dependable results; otherwise there may be sampling error. The
sampling error can decrease with every increase in sample size.

7. 6) End-use Method of Consumers’ Survey : Under this method, the sales of a
product are projected through a survey of its end-users. A product is used
for final consumption or as an intermediate product in the production of other
goods in the domestic market, or it may be exported as well as imported. The
demands for final consumption and exports net of imports are estimated
through some other forecasting method, and its demand for intermediate
use is estimated through a survey of its user industries.
COMPLEX STATISTICAL METHODS
We shall now move from simple to complex set of methods of
demand forecasting. Such methods are taken usually from statistics. As such,
you may be quite familiar with some the statistical tools and techniques, as
a part of quantitative methods for business decisions.
Time series analysis or trend method: Under this method, the time series data
on the under forecast are used to fit a trend line or curve either
graphically or through statistical method of Least Squares.
The trend line is worked out by fitting a trend equation to
time series data with the aid of an estimation method. The trend equation could
take either a linear or any kind of non-linear form. (Some of the most suitable
trend equations for demand forecasting are given in the Appendix )
The trend method outlined above often yields a dependable forecast. The
advantage in this method is that it does not require the formal knowledge
of economic theory and the market, it only needs the time series data.
The only limitation in this method is that it
assumes that the past is repeated in future. Also, it is an appropriate method for long-run
forecasts, but inappropriate for short-run forecasts. Sometimes the time series analysis
may not reveal a significant trend of any kind. In that case, the moving average method or
exponentially weighted moving average method is used to smoothen the series.
Barometric Techniques or Lead-Lag indicators method: This consists in discovering
a set of series of some variables which exhibit a close association in their movement over
a period or time.
It shows the movement of agricultural income (AY series) and the sale of tractors
(ST series). The movement of AY is similar to that of ST, but the movement in ST
takes place after a year’s time lag compared to the movement in AY. Thus if one
knows the direction of the movement in agriculture income (AY), one can predict
the direction of movement of tractors’ sale (ST) for the next year.
Thus agricultural income (AY) may be used as a barometer (a leading
indicator) to help the short-term forecast for the sale of tractors.
Generally, this barometric method has been used in some of the developed
countries for predicting business cycles situation. For this purpose, some
countries construct what are known as ‘diffusion indices’ by combining the
movement of a number of leading series in the economy so that turning points in

8. business activity could be discovered well in advance. Some of the limitations of this
method may be noted however. The leading indicator method does not tell you
anything about the magnitude of the change that can be expected in the
lagging series, but only the direction of change. Also, the lead period itself may
change overtime. Through our estimation we may find out the best-fitted lag
period on the past data, but the same may not be true for the future. Finally, it may
not be always possible to find out the leading, lagging or coincident indicators
of the variable for which a demand forecast is being attempted.
3) Correlation and Regression: These involve the use of econometric methods
to determine the nature and degree of association between/among a set
of variables. Econometrics, you may recall, is the use of economic theory,
statistical analysis and mathematical functions to determine the relationship
between a dependent variable (say, sales) and one or more independent
variables (like price, income, advertisement etc.). The relationship may be
expressed in the form of a demand function, as we have seen earlier.
Such relationships, based on past data can be used for forecasting. The analysis
can be carried with varying degrees of complexity. Here we shall not get into the
methods of finding out ‘correlation coefficient’ or ‘regression equation’, you must
have covered those statistical techniques as a part of quantitative methods.
Similarly, we shall not go into the question of economic theory. We shall
concentrate simply on the use of these econometric techniques in forecasting.
we are on the realm of multiple regression and multiple correlation. The form of
the equation may be:
DX = a + b1 A + b2PX + b3Py
You know that the regression coefficients b 1, b2, b3 and b4 are the components of
relevant elasticity of demand. For example, b 1 is a component of price elasticity
of demand. The reflect the direction as well as proportion of change in demand
for x as a result of a change in any of its explanatory variables. For example, b 2<
0 suggest that DX and PX are inversely related; b4 > 0 suggest that x and y are
substitutes; b3 > 0 suggest that x is a normal commodity with commodity
with positive income-effect.
Given the estimated value of and b i, you may forecast the expected sales (D X), if
you know the future values of explanatory variables like own price (P X), related
price (Py), income (B) and advertisement (A). Lastly, you may also recall that the
statistics R2 (Co-efficient of determination) gives the measure of goodness of fit.
The closer it is to unity, the better is the fit, and that way you get a more reliable
forecast.
The principle advantage of this method is that it is prescriptive as well
descriptive. That is, besides generating demand forecast, it explains why the
demand is what it is. In other words, this technique has got both explanatory and
predictive value. The regression method is neither mechanistic like the trend
method nor subjective like the opinion poll method. In this method of forecasting,
you may use not only time-series data but also cross-section data. The only

9. precaution you need to take is that data analysis should be based on the logic of
economic theory.
Simultaneous Equations Method: Here is a very sophisticated method of
forecasting. It is also known as the ‘complete system approach’ or ‘econometric
model building’. In your earlier units, we have made reference to
such econometric models. Presently we do not intend to get into the
details of this method because it is a subject by itself. Moreover, this method is
normally used in macro-level forecasting for the economy as a whole; in this
course, our focus is limited to micro elements only. Of course, you, as corporate
managers, should know the basic elements in such an approach.
The method is indeed very complicated. However, in the days of computer, when
package programmes are available, this method can be used easily to
derive meaningful forecasts. The principle advantage in this method is
that the forecaster needs to estimate the future values of only the
exogenous variables unlike the regression method where he has to predict
the future values of all, endogenous and exogenous variables affecting the
variable under forecast. The values of exogenous variables are easier to
predict than those of the endogenous variables. However, such
econometric models have limitations, similar to that of regression method.
Thus we may conclude that each and every method has its own merits
and demerits and we need to bare in mind this when we select a particular tool.
Exercises
How is the slope of demand curve different from price elasticity of demand?
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You can verify in the above numerical that the elasticity will have the same value
whether you consider a price fall from Rs. 3 or prices rise from Rs. 3 to Rs. 4.
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Complete the table below:

10. Unitary ealstic %∆Q=%∆P
Relatively elastic e>1
Perfectly elastic %∆P=0
Relatively inelastic e <1
Perfectly inelastic %∆Q=0
Given the following table on price and quantity, determine whether demand is
elastic, unitary
elastic, or less elastic when price rises from Rs. 7 to Rs. 8.
Price of commodity Quantity demanded of
gasoline gasoline
(Rs. per litre) (in litres)
10 100
9 120
8 150
7 175
6 180
Why does the Government prefer to levy an excise tax on commodities which
are less elastic in demand (like gasoline)?
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If you complete the following table, as an exercise, you should be absolutely
clear about the concepts and measure of different types of elasticities:
Values Zero One Greater Less
Concepts than one than one
e dQ dQ dP dP dQ dP dQ dP
=0 = ----- - = 0 ---- - > ----- - <
Q -- - P -- -- -
Q P Q P Q P
eij
er
ea
E
In the above table, the
symbols stand for:

11. Elasticity Assumption
e = own price or direct price
elasticity of demand Qx = a (Px)
eij = Qi = f (Pj)
er = Qx = r(R)
ea = Qx = a (A)
X1/X
s= 2 = X (MRS x1-x2)
P1
E= +1 = P (Pt)
d d
ed = Discretionary income elasticity of E e = c (1 )
demand for consumer durables.
Note : The assumptions a restatement from the generalized demand function
you have seen earlier except the Dx and a symbol has been replaced by Qx, and
d
that D e stands for expenditure on consumer durable, Id for discretionary income,
and ed is accordingly termed. You should now be in a position to coin any term of
elasticity or use a symbol which has a typical appeal to you.
In developed countries, market experiments are used to assess the demand
function for a particular product. By this method, product prices are varied from
time to time or between different regions of the country, and then the impact of
such price-variation on sales is assessed. Comment on the uses and abuses of
such a method of demand forecasting.
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.
List the demand forecasting techniques which are based on
consumers’ interview.
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Recall your understanding of the concepts of prediction, projection

12. and forecasting. What is the significance of demand forecasting?

13. Distinguish between the following types of forecasts:
1) Economic and Non-economic forecasts
2) Micro and Macro forecasts
3) Short-term and Long-term forecasts
4) Conditional and non-conditional forecasts
5) Ex-ante and Ex-post forecasts.
What is the role of time element in the context of demand forecasting?
What factors would you normally consider in choosing a forecasting technique?
Discuss the suitability of forecasting technique, if you want to forecast the
demand for:
1) Coal
2) Car
3) Plastic tea-cups and saucers
4) New product
Joel Dean has suggested the following set of approaches with
regard to techniques of forecasting the demand for new products:
5) Evolutionary Approach
6) Substitute Approach
7) Growth Curve Approach
8) Opinion Poll Approach
9) Sales Experience Approach
10) Vicarious Approach
Explain each of these approaches separately.
Note: Some of these terms may be new; but if you get back to recommended
reading No. 3 by Joel Dean and run down those few pages, you should be
able to discover all these approaches in this unit itself. And then you
can attempt integration.
Compare and contrast briefly the simultaneous equation and the
regression methods of demand forecasting.
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14. .................................................................................................................................
Since statistics can prove or disprove anything, it is better to use non-statistical
methods for forecasting. One such non-statistical method, which is free
from subjectivity, is the Historical Analogy Method. Under this method, the
demand forecasting is done in two stages:
1)selection of a country A which sometime in the past (period
t*), particularly with respect to industry i, the demand of whose product is
under forecasting, was in the same stage of development as country B for
which forecasts are being made at present (period t),
2)forecasting of the demand for industry i’s product in country B in period
t + 1, t + 2 .................., t + n on the basis of actual demand of that industry’s
product in country A in periods t* + 1, t* + 2, .............. t* + n.
Thus, the size of colour TV demand in India in 1988 is approximately
the same as the one experienced by the USA in 1968. On the assumption of
this 20 years lag, as per this method, India’s demand in 1998 will roughly be
the same as USA’s demand in 1978.
State the limitations of this method.
Draw a tree diagram indicating the Methods of Demand Forecasting
As a manager, you should predict the event, project the course of variables and
forecast the data. Keeping this in mind, fill in the blanks in the table below. Note
the suggested guideline.
Manager type Predicted event Forecast data
Marketing Manager Demand recession Sales volume
Finance Manager Cash flow
personnel Manager Employee turnover
Machine breakdown
Costs of production
Production Manager Imported material content
ADDITIONAL
READINGS

15. Adhikary, M. (1987) Managerial Economics, Khosla Publishing House: N. Delhi
(Ch. VIII).
Gupta, G.S. (1974) ‘Forecasting Techniques’, Management Annual, Vol. IV, Nov.
1974, pp. 8-21.
Dean, Joel (1976) Managerial Economics, Prentice-Hall of India: N. Delhi
(Ch. IV).
Chopra, O.P. (1984) Managerial Economics, Tata-McGraw Hill.
.
Appendix
1) Linear trend : D = a + dT where D is the demand for the product
under forecast, T is the trend variable which may be normalized to take the value of
1 in the first period, 2 in the second period and so on a (intercept) and b (slope) are
parametric information which can be estimated. The trend line assumes that
there will be a constant absolute amount of change (=b) every period.
bT
2) Exponential trend : D = ae or logeD = loge a + bT. This semi-log function-
assumes a constant growth rate = b each period.
2
3) Second (and higher) degree polynomials trend : D = a + dT + cT
In this case, the slope of the parabola is given by the term dD and it
changes dT
direction only once, either from positive to negative or vice-versa. The shape and
location with respect to axis will vary according to the values of constant a, b and
c.
b
iv) Double-log (Cobb-Douglas type) trend : D = aT

16. or, log eD = loge a + b loge T
This double-log trend assumes a constant elasticity = b every period.
POINTS TO PONDER
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Slide 1 _______________
Demand forecasting
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MeaningMe of forecasting:
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Forecasting
forwardrwa projectionpro of data_______________ ______________
Also known as sales forecasting _____ ______________
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Slide 2 _______________ ______________
Need forfo demandnd _____
forecasting ______________
Demand forecasting is needeed _______________ _______
concepts and theth techniquestec _______________ ______________
_____ ______________
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_______________ ______________
_____ ______________
forecastingca canca be appliedpli
_______

17. Slide 3 __________________________________
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Types of forecast _
Economiconom and Non-economic forecast
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MicroMi and MacroMa forecast
ActiveAct and passivepa forecastfoca
_
forec
Conditionalitio and nonno-conditionalnd astfo
runru and long runrun
ShortSh forecastre

18. Slide 3 __________________________________
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__________________________________
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__________________________________
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__________________________________
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__________________________________
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__________________________________
Types of forecast _
Economiconom and Non-economic forecast
__________________________________
MicroMi and MacroMa forecast
ActiveAct and passivepa forecastfoca
_
forec
Conditionalitio and nonno-conditionalnd astfo
runru and long runrun
ShortSh forecastre

19. Slide 3 __________________________________
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__________________________________
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__________________________________
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__________________________________
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__________________________________
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__________________________________
Types of forecast _
Economiconom and Non-economic forecast
__________________________________
MicroMi and MacroMa forecast
ActiveAct and passivepa forecastfoca
_
forec
Conditionalitio and nonno-conditionalnd astfo
runru and long runrun
ShortSh forecastre