This document provides guidance on writing essays, including how to plan, structure an introduction and body paragraphs, incorporate references, and proofread. Key points covered include allowing sufficient time for multiple drafts, using an outline to plan the essay structure and argument, and citing sources using an appropriate referencing style. Body paragraphs should include both descriptions and analyses, and conclusions should summarize the key points. The document offers tips for improving writing style such as avoiding vague language and linking paragraphs logically.

1. Australian International School Singapore
Library Fact Sheet
How to approach writing an essay – some quick notes
Start
Plan for your assessment due dates – on a monthly/term calendar
Remember 2000 word essay = 20 hours of research and writing (minimum)
Allow enough time for 3 drafts
Essay Introduction
1. Tell reader what essay is about by interpreting the question or
topic
2. State what essay will cover
3. Outline what essay will argue
4. Provide definitions of keywords or concepts where appropriate
Body of essay
2 features:
Description
Analysis (explanation)
Conclusion
Summarises key points of argument

2. Preplan – the question:
Command/T
ask words Definition
State Present in brief, clear form; express the main points of an
idea or topic, similar to describe.
Outline Give the main features; emphasise structure and
arrangement; do not include minor details. Present the
information in a systematic form.
Summarise Give the main facts in shortened form; do not include details
and examples.
Trace Follow the development or history of a topic step by step
from some point of origin.
Comment To give an opinion.
Describe To illustrate something in words or tell about it; give a
detailed account of something.
Discuss To examine by argument, consider both viewpoints; debate;
to make observations about something using facts,
reasoning, and argument; to present in some detail. An
opinion is implied in the question and you may agree with,
disagree with, or modify it, but always supported by evidence
which you should examine from various points of view.
Diagram Present a drawing, chart, plan or other graphic
representation. Label the diagram. You may be required to
add a brief explanation.
Illustrate Explain or clarify your answer by using specific examples, a
figure, picture, diagram, graph, drawing or other visual
concepts.
Define Give concise, clear meanings.
Show To point out, to set forth clearly a position or idea by stating
it and giving data to support it.
Prove Demands confirmation and verification. Show whether
something is true or false. Establish something with
certainty by evaluating and giving experimental evidence, or
by log.
Enumerate Specifies a list or outline. Recount the points required one by
/List one, concisely.
Relate Emphasise connections and associations in descriptive form,
or by a narrative that shows how things are connected to
each other.
Compare To note the similarities, though differences may be
mentioned, and come to a conclusion.

3. Contrast To compare by observing differences, though similarities
may be mentioned, and come to a conclusion.
Analyse Take apart; describe in turns the component parts of the
subject, how they inter-relate and contribute to the whole.
Explain To make plain or clear; to interpret; to give reasons for or
causes of; to show the logical development or relationships
of; state the ‘how and why’, the results, and where possible,
causes.
Interpret Express the meaning of; translate, give examples of, solve or
comment upon the subject. Usually give your judgement or
reaction to the problem but always make use of evidence.
Review Critically examine or make a survey of the subject. Analyse
the major points of the problem in organised sequence and
briefly comment on them.
Justify Give reasons for your decisions or conclusions. Evidence
must be presented in a consistent form.
Argue Give reasons or present facts for and against and issue; try to
prove by giving reasons or evidence for an against.
Criticise Express your judgement about the merit (or correctness) of
theories or opinions; analyse the subject & describe to what
extent it is supported by evidence.
Evaluate Present a careful judgement of the problem, stressing both
advantages and limitations. Implies authoritative and to a
lesser degree, personal opinions/judgement of both
advantages and limitations.
Keywords:
Highlight keywords that need to be defined & explained

4. Essay scope:
Who: is your intended audience?
What: how detailed does your information needs to be?
Where: do you need to make comparisons between regions or countries?
When: do you need to address historical and or current issues?
Why/how: are explanations required?
Brainstorm:
Mind map or linear
Locate:
Select and read variety sources
Always include reference information and develop bibliography as you do
your research, NOT at the end of the assignment
Skim: for information
Always check when and where material was published
Check table of contents & index to find relevant parts
Read introductions to chapters, subheadings to determine if relevant
Note taking:
– Make notes (point form) (use diagrams, numbers, colours) under
headings from mind map
1. Place headings on word document or paper using concept map
keywords – give each heading a letter reference eg. A = , B, C. Any
printed notes that you have highlighted also write down the relevant
letter for cross-reference.
2. Heading, bibliography or reference – as you take notes, write down
source information. Give each source a number. As you take notes
under your headings, include source number to cross-reference.
3. As you take notes, write them under the topic headings. Paraphrase!
Avoid copying.
4. Use direct quotes to emphasise particular point or to provide and
example of another author’s perspective or theory. Use quotation
marks. Record page number with your reference source.
5. Word count of your notes – should be double the word limit of the
assignment. You should not have fewer notes than the required essay
word limit.
Essay draft:
First draft: get something down on paper; talk about it out loud – try to
explain to someone else what you are trying to say.
Second draft: work on sentence and paragraph structure. Use short concise
sentences. Use formal language (not how you speak). Do not use cliché’s

5. (overused phrases), slang (colloquial language) or personal expressions. Use
active writing – clear and direct. Vary the words – Use a thesaurus! Use
abbreviations carefully. Write them out in full the first time you use them with
the abbreviation in brackets afterward.
Third draft: Final copy
Helpful hints on how to improve your
communication of ideas in an assignment
Ways to avoid writing ‘I think that’ or ‘One could suggest that’
• It could be suggested that ... indicates
• The facts suggest that ... dictates
• Most experts suggest ... outlines
• Analysis of the data suggests ... agrees
• Smith (1993:54) suggests ... disagrees
• Although Smith (1993:54) disagrees, most claims
writers suggest ... proposes
• Popular opinion suggests ... does not support
• Primary sources suggest ... opposes
• With some exceptions, primary sources is similar to
generally indicate ... implies
• With some exceptions, popular opinion supports the idea that
indicates ...
• This evidence suggests ... supports the opinion that
• Smith’s policy statement suggests ... supports notion that
• Like theoretical models, the trend suggests ... supports the belief that
supports the idea that
Replace ‘suggest’ with words from the list on the contradicts
right.
undermines
differs from
matches
coincides with

6. Ways to link paragraphs
The first or last sentence in the paragraph should contain the essential reason
for the inclusion of that paragraph. This is called a topic sentence, orientation
or valid generalisation. The first and last sentence in a paragraph can serve as
a link between paragraphs, using words like:
above all firstly, secondly ... instead
only then * accordingly in summary
following this otherwise likewise
afterwards as a result certainly *
consequently even though for this reason
however in conclusion in particular
meanwhile nevertheless more specifically
obviously * rather still
therefore to sum up on the contrary
it might be thought for example also
provided at the same time clearly *
earlier finally further(more)
if this be granted indeed in order that
many a case like this nonetheless not surprisingly
of course * similarly surprisingly
though whether admittedly
on the other hand later although
besides curiously enough while this is so
even if for instance although
besides since this is so even if
then hence in addition
in fact in short moreover
not only.. but also not until then one .. two
• Beware the absolute nature of these words. There are not many definite
ideas in the world! Words like of course, definitely, always, never, totally,
every one are dangerous to the validity of your argument because one
exception in the entire universe renders your argument incorrect or invalid.

7. Ways to introduce another viewpoint
• although • on the other hand • even though
• on the opposite side • nevertheless • sometimes people may
• however • on the other side • in spite of
• one side of the issue • in contrast to • this differs from
• at the same time • notwithstanding • despite this
• At a deeper level • What needs to be noted • However, the basic issue is
• On closer inspection, it is worth considering that ...
• Ultimately, it must be realised that ..
• More importantly however ...
• More significantly however ...
• More to the point is the fact that ...
• On the surface, it might seem that .......however
• The fundamental question is not however ...
• On first sight it might seem plausible to argue that ....however, on closer
inspection
• To argue .... is insufficient (not enough) .... it is necessary to consider ...
Ways to show your interpretation of key words or sources
• The meaning is
• This means
• It can be inferred
• In summary
• This term can be defined as
• Definitions vary but
• The most common definition is
• This is usually defined as
• From X’s point of view, this means
Ways to show your analysis of a question or hypothesis
• Similarities are evident
• Differences are evident
• A pattern can be identified
• A is like B in that
• A t rend can be identified
• Most writers agree/disagree
• Some writers ...
• Popular interpretations/themes
• Common knowledge
• Certain rules underlie
• Theories of ... support

8. Referencing
It is important to acknowledge where you got your information from, and to
avoid plagiarism. Referencing gives your essay credibility and allows people to
follow up on your sources.
You must reference direct quotes, that is, passages taken word for word. Use
quotation marks for quotes of less than 30 words.
For direct quotes of more than 30 words indent the quote from the left and
right page margin and use single spacing if typed. You do not need to use
quotation marks when indenting.
You should also reference information that you have paraphrased. Even when
you use your own words, you need to provide reference for information such
as statistics, research findings, ideas, concepts and theories of other authors.
For example: Apple (2001: 101) argues …
There is evidence to suggest…. (Apple 2000:101).
Always reference where you got the information.
Indirect quotes - Eg…………. (Smith cited in Germov 2000:131)
Using the ‘et al.’ abbreviation. This is used when there are more than three
authors.
Eg. Belcher et al. (1991:11) claim that ….
Studies suggest ….. (Belcher et al. 1999:11).
Citing multiple authors
Eg. A number of authors have found ….. (Williams 1999; Bryson 1996; Wicks
1999).
When there is no identifiable author, then reference whoever produced the
information or the actual title of the source, if the organisation is not clear.
Eg. (Department of Industrial Relations 1999)
Eg. (Getting what you want from government 1999).
Always use a reference list template for constructing your own reference
list. These can be found in the library or online. Use alphabetical order.
Eg. Landmarks citation machine
http://www.landmark-project.com/citation_machine/index.php
Roberts, Andrews, ABC of referencing
http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/Refer.htm
Include page numbers in your reference where appropriate.
Ensure that all the authors mentioned in your essay appear in the reference
list.

9. What’s the difference between a reference list and bibliography?
The list of information sources cited in your essay is called either a Reference
list or a Bibliography. In most cases the two terms are interchangeable.
Sometimes there is a distinction between the two terms. A Reference list is a
list of the actual references cited (quoted) in your written work. A
Bibliography is the wider list of information sources related to the topic that
you used, but not specifically referenced in your essay. Usually the only
references to include in your Reference list or Bibliography should be the ones
you actually cited or referred to in your essay. Always check with your teacher/
tutor as to their preference.
How to use the footnote method
An alternative method of referencing your material is by using footnotes. A
footnote refers to the insertion of a superscript number where the reference
should be. The number refers to a note printed at the foot of the page where
the corresponding bibliographic details for the source of the information are
listed. Footnotes are numbered consecutively, with the same number never
repeated even when starting a new page.
How to prepare an annotated bibliography
An annotated bibliography is a list of citations to books, articles and
documents. Each citation is followed by a brief (usually about 150 words)
descriptive and evaluative paragraph, the annotation. The purpose of the
annotation is to inform the reader of the relevance, accuracy, and quality of
the sources cited. A search of the internet will reveal many links that will set
out the format of an annotated bibiliography.
Finally Proofread:
Always proofread your final printed or written copy, or get a friend or family
member to proofread for you. Ask them to read and point out anything they
do not understand.
Before submitting:
Staple pages together
Include a cover sheet – this should contain the essay question, your name,
tutor/teacher’s name, subject name and due date.
Type or write your essay on only one side of the paper.
Use 1.5 spacing
Leave a wide margin (4 centimetres) for the marker’s comments.
Include a bibliography or reference list.
Keep a copy of the essay, just in case it goes the astray.
Bibliography:
Aldridge State High School. [online]
http://www.aldridgeshs.qld.edu.au/sose/skills/essguide.doc [Accessed:
3/11/04].
Allen & Unwin eStudyCentre. [online]
http://www.allenandunwin.com/estudy/referencing.asp. [Accessed: 9/11/04].

10. Essay Writing Centre. [online] http://essayinfo.com/ . [Accessed:5/11/04].
Germov, John. (2000) Get great marks for your essays, 2nd edition, Sydney:
Allen & Unwin. 808.4 GER
Infoplease Homework Centre [online]
http://www.infoplease.com/homework/writingskills1.html. [Accessed:
5/11/04].
Olin & Uris Libraries, Cornell University [online]
http://www.library.cornell.edu/olinuris/ref/research/skill28.htm
[Accessed: 6/6/2005].
Paradigm Online Writing Assistant. [online]
http://www.powa.org/ . [Accessed: 3/11/04].
Roberts, Andrews, ABC of referencing [online]
http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/Refer.htm. [Accessed: 9/11/04].
The Learning Centre, The University of New South Wales, Sydney. [online].
http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/taskword.html. [Accessed: 8/11/04].
Victoria, University of Wellington. [online]
http://www.vuw.ac.nz/st_services/slss/essay_writing/essay_keywords.html.
[Accessed: 8/11/04].
Developed by Yvonne Barrett 2005.