Academic writing course

� ,
I

STUDY SKILLS IN ENGLISH

R.R. Jordan

Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate, Harlow,
Essex CM20 2JE England
and Associated Companies throughout the World

www.longman.com
© R. R. Jordan 1980, 1990, 1999
This edition published by Pearson Education Limited 1999
Sixth impression 2003
ISBN 0582 40019 8
Produced for the publishers by Bluestone Press, Charlbury, Oxfordshire, UK
Design: Gregor Arthur; Keith Rigley at W hite Horse Graphics (this edition)
Printed in Spain by Graficas Estella
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any
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Warning: the doing of an unauthorised act in relation to a copy right work
may result in both civil claims for damages and criminal prosecution.

Acknowledgments
For the third edition of this book, I am very grateful to a number of people
for ideas and suggestions. In particular, members of the British Association
of Lecturers in English for Academic Purposes (BALEAP) were most helpful:
June O'Brien, John Morley, Ian PopIe, Pauline Robinson, Penny Adams,
Jo McDonough, Lou Lessios, Mark O'Reilly, Alan Barr, Moira Calderwood,
Esther Daborn, Esther J. Dunbar, Tony Dudley-Evans. From Australia:
Mary Cole, Cathy Pegolo, Christine Bundesen. In addition: Chris Keeble,
David Preen, Jane Jordan.
I am grateful to my editors for their advice and co-operation at all stages:
Kate Goldrick at Longman and, especially, Andy Hopkins and Joe Potter of
Bluestone Press for their detailed editing.

By the same author:

English for Academic Purposes: A guide and resource book for teachers
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997

For BALEAP members

Contents
Page

Introduction

Guide to Using the Book

Un its

Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 5
Unit 6
Unit 7
Unit 8
Unit 9
Unit 1 0
Unit 1 1
Unit 1 2
Unit 1 3
Unit 1 4
Unit 1 5
Unit 1 6
Unit 1 7
Unit 1 8
Unit 1 9

Append ices

Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Appendix 4
Appendix 5

Key

Structure and Cohesion
Description: Process and Procedure
Description: Physical
Narrative
Definitions
Exemplification
Classification
Comparison and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Generalisation, Qualification and Caution
Interpretation of Data
Discussion
Introductions and Conclusions
Academic Style
Paraphrasing and Summarising
Quotations and Referencing
Surveys, Questionnaires and Projects
Proofreading
Examinations

Language Difficulties and Types of Error
Connectives
Research Reports
Correcting Code
Optional Questionnaire:
Your Writing and this Book

Key to Exercises and Notes

4

9
14
21
27
34
39
43
51
58
64
70
76
82
88
93
98
105
1 12
120

126
133
138
140
141

1 42

3

Guide to U s i ng the Book

The Aim of the Course

1 To enable non-native speakers of English who wish to follow a
course in the medium of English at tertiary level to express
themselves coherently in writing.
2 To provide samples of academic writing and appropriate practice
material for such students and also for those students who need to
write essays or reports in English at an intermediate to advanced
level.
3 To act as a revision course for students who have previously
learned English as a foreign language at school and who probably
learned English with the sentence as the grammatical unit. These
students may now need to write in English for academic purposes.
4 To provide some practice in answering examination-type questions
for public or internal exams.

The Organisation of

Units

the Course

The book is divided into units that are self-contained but are linked in
their progression through the overall needs of students who have to
write in English for an academic purpose.
Many of the units focus on language functions that are used to
express a particular notion or idea, e.g. description and definitions.
The procedures of academic writing are also practised, e.g.
paraphrasing and summarising. The most common genre (type of
writing) that is practised is the essay. However, some practice is also
provided in writing for exams, and information is given about writing
research reports.
Written practice is given at different levels within each unit, mostly
in three stages. All the units except the first conclude with a Structure
and Vocabulary Aid to provide assistance with the words and
grammatical constructions needed in that unit.
Key

The Key at the end of the book provides additional comments on
some of the exercises and gives answers to many of the exercises.
Appendices

The Appendices act as a bank of reference material for both the
student and the teacher. Appendix 1 provides an overview of some of
the common types of language error and their causes. It also lists
some useful books that give further practice in these areas.

4

Product and Process

Overall, the course provides practice in writing for a particular
purpose: often models or examples are given from academic writing.
In addition, the process of achieving the final product is considered.
Students are encouraged to discuss and compare some of their
writing, and to draft and check their writing carefully through
proofreading. The teacher's use of a correcting code ( Appendix 4)
will help in this respect.
Using the Book

It is best if the units are worked through in order. However, this
depends on the requirements of the students, who may need to
practise the content of certain units before others ( for example, Unit
1 4: Academic Style) . The Structure and Vocabulary Aids should be
referred to when necessary. Normally, the answers to each exercise
should be checked in the Key before proceeding to the next exercise.

Suggestions for

General

the Teacher

1

In a number of units there are blank-filling exercises to be done
after reading a text. These can be used with some flexibility:
students who have difficulty can look at the text again or at the
same time as they are writing. Other students can do the exercises
without referring back to the text. Advanced students can try to
do the exercises before looking at the text. In other words, they
will be trying to anticipate or predict the language needed from
the context of the sentence.

2 Students may need to practise different kinds of academic writing
(genres) in preparation for their studies of a particular subject.
Units 14 and 1 6 will be particularly useful for this. In addition, it
would be helpful if they could see examples of essays, reports, etc.
of the type they will need to write in the future. Information about
the requirements and expectations of subject departments would
be particularly useful.
3 Some groups of students may be studying the same academic
subject, e.g. one of the sciences or social sciences. If this is the
case, then it would be helpful if you could devise some questions
related to their specific subject at the end of Stage 3 for each unit.
Similarly, some students may be at undergraduate level while
others may be postgraduates. Consequently, practice at the
appropriate level would be beneficial.
4 The questionnaires in Unit 17 and Appendix S may be
photocopied for students to complete.
S

As a learning resource for students, any word processing package
can help them to edit their own texts. There are also a range of
websites which give access to learning and practice material
(guidance, models, examples) .

5

Examination Practice

Some students may need to practise writing answers for examination
questions, either for internal or public exams. For such practice they
need to be able to analyse the questions and decide what is needed.
In addition, they need to write concisely, fluently and accurately. Unit
19 will be especially useful for this: its Glossary of Examination and
Essay Questions will be generally useful for writing essays. Other
units that are useful for exam practice are numbers 11-15 .
One feature of writing for exams is the need to be able to write
quickly - 'against the clock': for example, one essay-type question in
one hour. Practice for this can be devised by giving a certain time
limit in which to write some of the Stage 3 exercises, particularly
those that apply to the students' own subject.
If a class is formed of students from the same subject area, it
would be useful to obtain copies of past exam papers in their subject.
The questions can be analysed with the students, noting the question
types that appear frequently. A question can be selected, discussed,
the structure agreed upon and notes put on the board to help the
students. They could then be given a time limit to write the answer.
Later in the course, the notes on the board can be removed after
discussion so that gradually help is reduced.
If the students are of mixed disciplines, they can be asked to
provide questions about their own subj ects. After suitable
preparatory work they can attempt to write the answers under
simulated exam conditions.
It is also possible to obtain information about public exams with
examples of question papers. For example, The fELTS handbook is
available from UCLES, Cambridge. Information about these exams,
as well as other aspects of academic writing, is given in English for
Academic Purposes (A guide and resource book for teachers ) by R.
R. Jordan, Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Correcting Code

Sometimes when checking students' writing, it is necessary to write in
the correct answers. However, some research has shown that if
students are actively involved in trying to correct their own mistakes,
with guidance, they are more likely to learn from them and not
repeat them. One way to help in this respect is to use a code for
correcting (see Appendix 4). With this approach, mistakes are not
corrected but are indicated - both the type of mistake and its
location.
Where a student's writing is 'good' or 'very good', it is very helpful
to the student if you can indicate which parts are good and briefly
explain why they are good. Without such comments, students may
not repeat the good features in their next writing.
In addition to the Correcting Code, an appropriate Checklist for
the type of writing (e.g. essay) can be constructed. If this is also
circulated to students it will raise their awareness of what is needed
and also remind them of what to check for. It can be used in
conj unction with Unit 18. Examples of its content might be:
- Relevance of the answer to the question or topic
- Structure and organisation of the essay, and completeness of the
writing

6

J

Clear expression
Coherence of argument
Critical evaluation of points of view
References to literaturelresearch and use of quotations and
bibliography
Other details: grammar, spelling, punctuation
Discussion and Writing

Several discussion activities have been included, and students are
encouraged to compare and discuss their answers with other
students. The purpose is to raise the level of awareness of students of
certain aspects of written English. In addition, the discussion is a
useful prelude to writing discussion-type essays in which points of
view need to be argued. It helps in the evaluation of differences
between arguments. Such discussion also helps to develop critical
thinking and self-confidence in expressing one's own views.
Pyramid Discussions

A Pyramid Discussion is an activity in which students are encouraged
to take part in discussion by gradually increasing the size of the
discussion group, starting with the individual, then building up to
two students, then four, and then the whole group. The procedure is
as follows:
1

First, students should individually select three items, as instructed,
from the list given in the activity. The order of their choices is not
important.

2 Then each student, in turn, should call out the numbers of his/her
choices. Write these on the board for all to see.
e.g. student:
choices:

A
12
14
15

B
3
7
10

C
4
7
12

D etc.
1
7
10

3 After this, put the students i n pairs s o that they have, a s far as
possible, at least one choice in common (e.g. A and C, B and D
above).
4 In pairs the students should then try to persuade each other to
make changes in their choices so that at the end of a certain time
limit (perhaps five minutes) they both agree on three choices. If
necessary, they can compromise on new choices or 'trade-off'
choices. The pairs' three choices are then noted on the board
agam.
5 Pairs should then be placed together who have at least one choice
the same . . . and so the procedure continues until all of the class
are involved.
6 If a pair or group finish their discussion before other groups, they
can prepare arguments to defend their choices so that they are
ready to meet another group.
7 While they are discussing, students will be practising the language
of persuasion: agreement, disagreement, suggestion, qualification
and compromise.
7

8 At the end of the activity is a suggestion that students can add
some items of their own to the list. This may be done in pairs
instead of, or in addition to, individually.
Pyramid Discussions are included in the following units: 2, 6, 7, 8,
1 1 , 12, 1 5 , 17 and 1 9. In addition, you could compose your own
lists for extra topics, perhaps with the students suggesting items for
the list (consisting of about 1 0- 1 5 items) . If more information is
needed about Pyramid Discussions, see ELT Journal, Vol. 44 No. 1 ,
January 1 990, Oxford University Press ('Pyramid Discussions' - R.
R. Jordan, pages 46-54).

Advice for the
Student

8

With academic writing it is particularly important that you should
check to ensure that it has the appropriate formal style. Help is given
with this in Unit 14. General difficulties are covered in Unit 1 8 and
Appendix 1 . Appendix 1 also refers to some books that can help you
with further practice in areas of general difficulty.
The Pyramid Discussion in Unit 2 Stage 3 contains a list of advice
that should help to improve your a<:ademic writing. To that list could
be added the need to write at least two drafts before you write the
final version. Each draft should be revised after leaving it for a day or
more so that you can think about and check any difficulties that you
have.
If it is possible, you will find it very helpful to see examples of the
type of writing that you are aiming to prepare for, for example, essays
and reports. If the examples are good ones, they will show you the
structure of the writing, the formal style, and the referencing system.

U nit 1

Un it 1

Structure and Cohesion

This unit is concerned with the general
organisation of a piece of academic writing
(e.g. a report, an essay, an assignment, a
project), its structure and particularly the

Stage 1

Struct u re

way in which the different parts are linked
together. The plan below of a piece of
writing, in this case an essay, will help to
explain the overall structure.

STRUCTURE

1

CONTENT

INTRODUCTION

sentences

t

The subject or topic. A statement of the
problem, etc. Comments on the way it is to be
treated.

paragraphs

2 DEVELOPMENT
Presentation, analysis and discussion
(involving comments on 'advantages' and
'disadvantages').

1 main idea
(+ examples, details)
2 main idea
(+ examples, details)
3 etc.

1..-

LANGUAGE
FUNCTIONS

3 CONCLUSION

Perhaps a summary of the maIn POInts In 2.

Own views/opinions and decisions.

Most pieces of formal writing are organised in a similar way introduction; development of main ideas or arguments; conclusions.
Each part of the writing will consist of language functions: particular
uses and structures of the language organised according to the
specific purpose that the writer has in mind in wishing to
communicate ideas etc. to other people - describing, defining,
exemplifying, classifying etc.
Each language function consists of sentences and/or paragraphs
that are j oined together or linked by connectives (words or phrases
that indicate a logical relationship) . These language functions will be
examined in detail in the following units. In the rest of this unit we
shall look at the linking of sentences by means of connectives.

9

Unit 1

Stage 2

Con n ectives

A piece of writing or text will often have the following structure:
.--------------------------------------�
.
.
.
.

i
i

BASIC
CONNECTIVES: type

i.��:.

..

_

..... ...
.

i
i

Introduction

!

A
supporting
information

A

opposite
arguments

t

C

I

mam
development

tA

I

B
�

alternative
proposals

t

Conclusion

A The discussion, argument, or comment in the development of the
topic may be very straightforward, in which case ideas will be
added together one after the other. The basic connective and is
used here. (A number of connectives have a similar or related
meaning to and.)
B Sometimes the comments may be expressed in another way, or an
alternative proposal may be made. This is represented by the
basic connective or. (A number of other connectives have a
similar meaning. ) After the alternative has been considered, the
main argument will continue.
C There are also occasions in arguments etc. when the opposite is
considered or referred to. This is represented by the basic
connective but. (There are also a number of other connectives
with a similar meaning. ) After the opposite or opposing view has
been considered, the main argument is continued.
A list of the connectives divided into the main groups of and,
is contained in Appendix 2: Connectives.

10

or,

but

Unit 1

1 'And' type: Connectives of Result (Typ e A)
Look at the fol lowi ng example:

He passed his examinations;

so,
therefore,
as a result,
accordingly,
consequently,
thus,
hence,

he had some good
news to tell his
parents.

Because he passed his examinations,
Note:

The connectives (in italics) join a cause ('he passed h i s
examinations') with a result, effect or consequence ( ' h e h a d
some good news t o tel l h i s parents').

Add a second sentence. Use a suitable con n ective from the l ist
a bove, and a resu lt, effect or consequence from the l ist below.

a

Many students find it difficult to read newspapers in
English . . .

b Most students living abroad are interested in news of their
own country . . .
c

When a student goes abroad to study he/she may have to
complete about twelve different forms . . .

Result, Effect or Consequence:
British news is found to be of most interest.
they usually read the international news first in the
newspapers.
an average of five books per month are read.
not many read one regularly.
it is useful to be able to answer questions briefly.
Complete the fol lowi ng by adding a su itable ending of you r own .

d The lecture was very difficult to understand. Consequently,
e

Carlos was only able to read very slowly in English. Therefore,

2 'Or' type: Connectives of Reformulation (Type B)
Look at the fol lowi ng example:

He said that he
had kept the
library book for
several years.
Note:

In other words
To put it more simply,
It would be better to say

he had stolen it.

The connectives (in italics) introduce a reformulation of what
has come before. The reformulation a ppears in different words
and is used to make the idea clearer or to explain or modify it.

11

Unit 1

Add a second sentence. Use a suita ble con nective from the l ist
a bove, and an a ppropriate reform ul ation from the l ist below.

a

Maria is rather slow at learning . .

.

___________

b Helen finds languages quite easy . . .
c

Anna speaks English like a native-speaker . . .

Reformulation:
she speaks it excellently.
she speaks slowly.
she is taking a long time to improve her English .
she has little difficulty in learning English.
she speaks it with great difficulty.
Complete the fol l owing by adding a suita ble ending of you r own .

d Margaret is bilingual. In other words,
e

__________

Some people say that if you are good at music you will also be
good at learning languages. In other words,

_______

3 'But' type: Connectives of Concession (Type C)
Look at the fol l owing exa mple:

The time available for
discussion was very
limited.

Note:

However,
Nevertheless,
Nonetheless,
Yet,
In spite of that,
A ll the same,

it was still possible
to produce some
interesting
arguments.

the connectives (in italics) indicate the surprising nature of
what follows in v i ew of what was said before; a kind of contrast
is indicated.

Add a second sentence. Use a su ita ble connective from the l ist
a bove, a n d a concession (or contrast) from the l i st below.

a

Some of the examination questions were very difficult . . .

b There was only limited money available for research . . .

c

12

The project was very complicated . .
.

__________

Unit 1

Concession:
Dimitrios was not able to do it.
Juan succeeded in completing it in time.
Abdul was able to obtain a grant.
Oscar did not manage to complete them.
Ali managed to answer them satisfactorily.
Complete the fol l owing by adding a su itable end i n g of you r own .

d It seemed likely that he would fail the test. However,
e

There were a number of good reasons why he should not
finish the experiment. Nevertheless,

__________�

Stage 3

Paragraphs

It is essential to divide your writing into paragraphs. A paragraph
normally contains several sentences but they are all concerned
with the theme contained in the topic or key sentence (i.e. the
main sentence). The key sentence is usually the first one, which
contains the main idea or topic. The other sentences support it by
adding further information or examples. A paragraph is self
contained but should link logically with the previous and
following paragraphs so that the flow and cohesion of the writing
is maintained.

1 Look at the paragraph at the end of Stage 1. Which is the key
sentence?

2 The fol l owing sentences a re i n m ixed order. To form a paragra ph
they need to be reorgan ised. Underline the key sentence and put
the sentences i n the correct order by n u m beri n g them 1-5.

a

It is mainly formal, impersonal and objective.

b In most of these the writer is expected to include references to
other writing or research.
c

Academic writing is a particular kind of writing that can be
recognised by its style.

d These include essays, research reports and articles, case studies,
surveys, dissertations, theses, and examination papers.
e

Other distinctive features will depend upon the specific types of
academic writing.

Note:

Paragraphs a re either indented from the l eft marg i n (Le. they
start further in from the left) or a line of space is left at the
end of a paragraph and the next paragraph is started on the
left margin. This makes it easier for the reader to read a text.

13

Unit 2

U n it 2

Description: Process and Procedure

When we describe a process or procedure,
we often use present passive verb forms
(is/are + verb stem + ed e.g. it is
manufactured) to give a general
description.
When we report a particular procedure,
we are concerned with only one particular
occasion in the past; then we often use the
past passive tense (was/were + verb stem +
ed e.g. it was heated).

Stage 1

G e n e ra l Descri pt i o n

A description that does not involve a
process or procedure is often written in the
present simple active tense (verb stem + s
e.g. it comprises).
Sequence, or order, is important in both
describing a process or reporting a
procedure.

1 Read t h e fol l owing ca refu l ly. Note particu l a rly t h e verb forms that
are used : some of the present passive verb forms a re in italics.
How paper is made

Paper is made from wood, and many of the worl d's paper m i l l s are
found in those cou ntries wh i ch have great forests - Canada,

Sweden and F i n l and.
The trees are felled or cut down.
The branches and leaves are removed.
The trees are transported to the sawm i l l .
The bark i s stripped from the trun ks.
The tru n ks are sawn i nto logs.
They are conveyed to the paper m i l l.
They are p laced i n the sh redder.
They are cut i nto sma l l ch i ps.
They are m i xed with water and ac i d .
They are heated and crushed t o a heavy pu l p.
Th i s wood pu l p is c l eaned.
It i s a l so chem i cal ly bleached to w h i ten it.
It is passed t h rough ro l lers to fl atten it.
Sheets of wet paper are prod uced.
The water is removed from the sheets.
These sheets are pressed, dried and refi ned u nti l the fi n i shed
paper is produced.

I

I,
i,

2 Read ca refu l ly through the text again and underl ine other present
passive verb forms.
N,Qte:

1 Wtien describing a process, sequence markers, e,9. first, then,
next, firrally ... are often used (see ApPlindix 2: Connectives,
Section 1 ). .They Help to lihkthe sentences.
2 Sometimes, in order to avoid repllatill9 a subject, a relative
pronoun and relative diluse are used. e.g. The bark is stripped
from the truhks. The trunks are sawn into logs becomes The
bark is stripped from the trunks, whiCh are sawn into logs.

14

U nit 2

3 Some of the sentences from the text have been joi ned together
below to form a paragraph. Spaces have been l eft i n the sentences.
In the spaces write a n appropriate verb (and sometimes
preposition), and, if su itable, a relative pronoun.

i n the shredder. Then they
i nto sma l l c h i ps
water and acid.
N ext they
to a heavy p u l p
It
a l so chem i ca l ly
to wh iten it.
t h rough ro l lers to fl atten it. Then,
After th i s, it
. F i na l l y, the water
sheets of wet paper
from the sheets
u nti l the
fi n i shed paper
F i rst, the l ogs

______

______

______

______

______

______

4 Look at the seq uence of pictu res below. U nderneath there a re a
n u m ber of sentences describing how a brea kfast cereal is made.
The sentences a re i n the wrong order. Write them out i n the correct
order using the sequence of pictu res to help you.
How a breakfast cereal is made

a It is stored i n the s i l os.
b These are woven i nto b i sc u i ts.
c The wheat i s harvested from the fie l d .
d Each biscuit i s ba ked u nti l brow n .
e It i s cut and formed i nto th i n strips.
f The gra i n is cooked to soften it.
g It i s packed ready to be eaten.
h The wheat gra i n is transported to the s i los.

5 Look ca refu l ly at the diagra m on page 1 6 of the stages of
man ufacture of glass bottles. Six boxes have been n u m bered and
left empty. Now read ca refu lly the sentences next to the diagra m .
They a re in t h e wrong order and a re not complete.
- Complete the sentences by putting the verb (given at the end of
each sentence) in the appropriate passive form.
- Write the sentences i n the correct order.
- Join them together by means of seq uence ma rkers (e.g. then,
next).

- F i n a l ly, from the i nformation in the sentences, write the correct
names in the six boxes in the diagram.
15

rr

Unit 2

How glass bottles are made

a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h

Stage 2

S pecific Proced u re

It
i nto bottles in the mou l d . (sh ape)
Someti mes broken gl ass
. (add)
to strengthen the gl ass. (reheat
The bottl es
and coo l )
from sand, l i mestone, and soda ash.
G l ass
(make)
They are ready
. (use)
. (produce)
G l ass
strongly in a furnace. (heat)
Th i s m i xt u re
These th ree mater i a l s
together i n the right
proportions. (mix)
______

______

1 Look at the fol lowi ng ta ble ca reful ly.
Writing in English: Manchester University (50 students)
%
students
52
34
14
12

type of
writing

( average )
frequency

( average)
length

essay
report
disserta tion
thesis

5 per term
2 per term
1 per year
1 after
2-3 years

2000 words
4000 words
8000 words
300-1000 pages

The information in the table can be described (as an alternative to
using the table) . Notice the construction of the following sentence:
52 % of the students wrote essays, of an average frequency of 5
per term, of an average length of 2000 words.
Now read the fol l owing paragraph, which descri bes some of the
i nformation conta ined in the table. Complete the spaces with
i nformation from the ta ble.

A survey was conducted among
overseas
. The p urpose of the
postgradu ate students at
and
su rvey was to d i scover the type,
of academ i c writi ng that was expected of the
of the
students by their su pervisors or tutors.
students
reports, of an
2 per
average length
term,

______

______

16

Unit 2

2 Below the steps or stages in conducti ng a su rvey a re given . In the
spaces in each sentence write an a ppropriate verb from the
fol lowi ng l ist. Use past passive forms of the verbs, e.g. was/were
asked.

Verbs: request, collect, carry out, publish, analyse, distribute

a A survey
among 50 students.
to the students.
b First, questionnaires
to write answers to the
c Then the students
questions.
d After this, the completed questionnaires
e Next, the answers
f Finally, the results
______

_
_____

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

Note:

Stage 3

Advice

See Unit 17 for conducting an actual survey.

1 Read ca refu l ly the fol l owing descri ption of the procedure for
writi ng an essay. It g ives advice in the form of what you should do.
(Most of the verbs are mod a l passive forms, e.g. should + passive
infin itive.) When you have fin ished rea d i ng do the exercise in 2.
The Stages of Writing an Essay

5

10

15

20

25

First, the top i c, subj ect or question shou l d be thought about
carefu l l y: what i s req u i red in the essay shou l d be understood.
Th�n a note shou l d be made of i deas, perhaps from
knowledge or experience. After th i s, any books, jou rnals, etc .
shou l d be noted that h ave been recom mended, perhaps from a
read i ng l ist or a b i b l i ograp hy. Then to the l i st shou l d be added
any other books, articles, etc. that are d i scovered wh i l e the
recom mended books are bei n g fou n d .
N ow i s t h e time for t h e books, chapters, art i c l es, etc. t o be
read, with a pu rpose, by appropriate q u estions bei ng asked
that are rel ated to the essay top i c or title. C l ear notes shou l d
b e written from t h e readi ng. I n add ition, a record o f the
sources shou ld be kept so that a b i b l i ography or l i st of
references can be com p i l ed at the end of the essay. Any
quotations shou l d be accu ratel y acknow l edged : author's
surname and i n itials, yea r of p u b l i cation, edition, publ isher,
p l ace of publ i cation, and page n u m bers of quotations.
When the notes have been fi n ished �hey should be l ooked
through in order for an overview of the subject to be obta i ned.
Then the content of the essay sho u l d be deci ded on and how it
i s to be orga n i sed or p l a n ned. The mater i a l shou l d be carefu l ly
selected: there m ay be too m uch and some may not be very
relevant to the q uestion. The mater i a l , or i deas, shou ld be
d ivi ded i nto three m a i n sections for the essay: the i ntrod uction,
the main body, and the conc l u si o n . An outl i n e of the essay
shou l d be written, with use bei ng made of head i ngs or sub
head i ngs, if they are appropriate.
The first draft shou l d be written in a su itably formal or
acade m i c sty le. Wh i le doing t h i s, the u se of co l l oq u i a l
17

U nit 2

3 0 express ions and person a l references shou l d b e avo i ded . When

35

it has been completed, the draft shou l d be read critica l ly, and
i n particu l a r, the organ i sation, cohesi on, and l a nguage shou ld
be checked . Severa l q uestions shou l d be asked about it, for
example: Is it clear? Is it concise? Is it comprehens ive? Then
the d raft shou l d be revi sed and the fi n a l draft written - legi bly!
It shou l d be remembered that fi rst i m press ions are i m porta nt.
F i na l l y, the b i b l i ography shou ld be compi led, u s i n g the
conventional format: the references shou l d be in stri ct
a l p h abetical order. Then the b i b l i ograp hy shou l d be added to
the end of the essay.

2 A l l the sentences conta i n ing advice (should) a re l isted below. Spaces
have been left for the verbs. In each space write the a ppropriate
verb, but write it as a d i rect instruction (putti ng the verb in its
i m perative form) e.g. should be finished � finish.
The Stages of Writing an Essay

a

______

b
c

______

d

e

g
h

k

m

18

_________

carefu l l y about the top i c, subj ect or
question.
what i s req u i red i n the essay.
a note of you r i deas, perhaps from you r
know l edge or experience.
any books, journals, etc. that have been
recommended, perhaps from a rea d i n g
l i st or a b i b l i ography.
to yo u r l ist any other books, arti c les, etc .
that you d i scover wh i l e fi n d i ng the
recommended books.
the books, chapters, art i c l es, etc . with a
purpose, by asking yo u rself appropri ate
q uestions that are rel ated to the essay
topi c or title.
c lear notes from you r read i ng.
a record of your sou rces so that you can
compi le your own b i b l i ography or l i st of
references at the end of you r essay.
accu rately any quotati ons: author's
su rname and i n it i a l s, year of p u b l i cation,
edition, p u b l i s her, p l ace of p u b l i cation,
and page n u m bers of quotations.
through you r notes when yo u have
fi n i shed in order to obta i n an overvi ew of
the subject.
on the content of yo u r essay and how
you want to orga n i se it, i n oth er words,
p l a n i t.
you r material ca refully: you m ay have too
m u c h and some may not be very rel evant
to the q uestion.
you r material, or i deas, i nto th ree m a i n
sections for t h e essay: t h e i ntrod uction,
the main body, and the concl u s i o n .

U n it 2

Summary

of the Stages of

Writi ng an Essay

Topic
think
Reading list
-

n

o
p
q

s
u
v
w

_______________

x
y

an outl i ne of the essay, making use of
headi ngs or sub-headi ngs, if they are
appropri ate.
the fi rst d raft, in a su itably formal or
academ i c style.
the use of col l oq u i a l express ions or
personal references.
the draft critica l ly, in parti c u l a r checki ng
the orga n i sation, cohesion and language.
you rself severa l q uestions about it, for
example: Is it c l ear? Is it concise? Is it
comprehensive?
the draft.
the fi nal d raft.
sure it is legi b l e!
fi rst i mpressions are i mportant.
you r b i b l i ography, using the conventional
format.
that you r references are in stri ct
alphabetical order.
the b i b l i ography to the end of you r essay.

3 Read through 'The Stages of Writing an Essay' a g a i n . Decide what
you consider to be the most i mportant stages or advice. In very
brief note form su mma rise the stages by f i l l i n g in the boxes in the
diagram. The fi rst one has been done for you (you may change it if
you do not agree with it).
Either:

Or:

Pyramid Discussion

Wri t i n g an Essay
o r Report

Before beg i n n i ng, d iscuss with the student next to you
what you both consider to be the most important stages.
Do you agree with each other?
After you have fin ished, compare you r summary diagram
with the student next to you and discuss any differences.

Ind ividu a l ly select the three most im porta nt pieces of advice, from the
l ist below, that you th i n k will help to improve a student's academic
writi ng. The order of the three choices is not important.

1 Write precisely: clearly, accurately and explicitly.
2 Use correct language: grammar, vocabulary, spelling etc.
3 Organise the writing carefully: introduction, main body, and
conclusion.
4 Write legibly: handwriting should be easy to read.
S Write in an academic style: impersonally, without using colloquial
language.
6 Write concisely, and avoid very long sentences.
7 Adopt appropriate attitudes: be rational, critical, honest and
objective.
8 Carefully paragraph the writing.
9 Include variety in the writing: avoid too much repetition.
10 Check details carefully, both of content and of language.
1 1 Ensure that the opening paragraph is not too long and that it
creates a good impression.
19

Unit 2

1 2 Pay as much attention to the conclusion as to the introduction.
13 Avoid the use of cliches, j argon, propaganda, exaggeration, and
emotive language.
14 Ensure that ideas and items are arranged in a logical sequence
and are logically connected.
15 Always acknowledge the source of quotations and paraphrases.
Fina l ly add some advice of your own that is not covered in the l ist
above.
Note:

Structure and
Vocabulary Aid

A

Information about organisihg a Pyramid Diswssion in the
Classroom is given ill the Guide to Using the Book.

Commonly used verb tenses, with examples

Present Simple (Active)

Present Simple (Passive)

it carries/they carry

it is carried/they are carried

Past Simple (Active)

Past Simple ( Passive)

it carried/they carried

it was carried/they were
carried

Modal Passive

B

Imperative/instruction

it should be given/they should be
given

give

Relative pronouns and relative clauses

1
2
3
4

Who/that refers to persons.
Which/that refer to things.
Whose refers to the possessive of persons.
Whom refers to persons and is often used with a preposition.

Examples:
1 My supervisor, who seems very young, has j ust been promoted
to head of department.
2 The article which ( or that) I have just finished reading is very
clearly written.
3 The research that ( or which) I finished last year has j ust been
published.
4 The lecturer whose name I always forget was as boring as usual
this morning.
"
S The student with whom I share a room is very noisy [formal].
The student I share a room with is very noisy [informal].

20

Unit 3

U n it 3

Description: Physical

In academic writing, physical description
may occur in a number of disciplines or
subjects. A description of people, family
relationships, occupations and institutions
might occur in social or physical
anthropology or sociology. A description
of apparatus and equipment might occur

in the various sciences. For nearly all these
descriptions present simple active verb
forms (e.g. she wears/they wear) and
present simple passive verb forms (e.g. it is
described/ they are described) are
commonly used. The following stages
concentrate on describing countries.

Stage 1

N

I

The U nited Kin g d o m

.....
":
. ... :

. .

1 Read the fol l owing paragraph ca refu l ly. Write the names of the
places next to the n u m bers i n the map.
The United Kingdom

5

10

B rita i n (or G reat B ri ta i n) i s an i s l a n d that l ies off the north
west coast of E u rope. The nearest cou ntry i s France, w h i c h is
20 m i l es away and from which B rita i n is separated by the
Engl ish Channe l . The i s l and i s su rrou nded by the Atlantic
Ocean to the west, and the N o rth Sea to the east. It compri ses
the m a i n lands of England, Wa l es and Scotland, that is, th ree
countries. Scotl and is i n the north, wh i l e Wa l es is in the
west. I reland, which i s a l so an i s l a nd, l ies off the west coast
of B rita i n. It consi sts of Northern I reland and the I r i s h
Rep u b l i c. Brita i n together w i t h N o rthern I reland constitute
the U n ited Ki ngdom ( U K) . Th u s, the U n ited Ki ngdom i s
21

Unit

3

composed of four countries, the l argest of which is England.
The capital c ity i s London, which i s situated i n south-east
England.

2 Now read the second part of the text. When you have fin ished,
complete the summary below of the whole text by using
appropriate verb forms. Someti mes a preposition is needed as wel l .
15 The U K h a s a tota l area o f about 2 44, 1 00 sq u a re k i l ometres

20

25

30

35

(94,248 sq uare m i les). About 70% of the land area is devoted
to agricu lture, about 7% is wasteland, moorland and
mou nta i ns, about 1 3 % i s devoted to u rban development, and
1 0% i s forest and wood land. The northern and western
regions of B rita i n, that is Scotland and Wa l es, are m a i n l y
mounta i nous and h i l ly. Parts o f t h e north-west a n d centre of
England also consist of mounta i ns and h i l l s.
B rita i n has a genera l ly m i l d and temperate c l i mate. It is,
however, subject to frequent cha nges. It has an average
a n n u a l ra i nfa l l of about 1 2 0 centimetres (47 i nches) .
I n 1 998 the pop u l ation of the U n ited Ki ngdom was nearly
5 9 m i l l ion. The density of popu lation was approxi mately 240
peopl e per square k i l ometre. However, in England, where
83% of the pop u l ation l ive, the density was much h i gher,
about 3 63 per square k i lometre.
In the U K, E n g l i s h i s the fi rst l anguage of the vast majority
of people. However, i n western Wa l es, Wel s h is the fi rst
l anguage for many of the people. In Scotland o n l y a sma l l
n u m ber o f peopl e speak Gael i c .
I n Brita i n about 66% o f the popu lation say that they are
Ch ristian, wh i l e fewer than 5 % say that they belong to other
rel igions.

Summary

the Atlantic
Brita i n is an i s l and that ( 1 )
Ocean and the N o rth Sea. It (2)
the
ma i n l a nds of Engl and, Wa les and Scotland. I reland
(3)
the west coast of B r i ta i n . It
(4)
Northern I reland and the I rish Repu b l i c .
T h e U n i ted Ki ngdom ( 5 )
B rita i n together
with Northern I re l a n d . The capital city i s London w h i c h
(6)
south-east England.
I n 1 998 the popu lation of the U K (7)
_
nearly 59 m i l l i o n . The density of popu l ation
(8)
240 people per square ki lometre. In
the fi rst language of
the UK Engl ish (9)
most people. I n western Wa les, Wel s h ( 1 0)
many of the people, but few people i n Scotland
(1 1 )
Gael ic.
______

______

________

22

U n it 3

1 Look ca refu l ly at the map of Austra l i a and at the table of

Stage 2

i nformation. Then write a description of Austra l i a organ ised i n a
similar way to the description of the U K . Check the Structure and
Voca bulary Aid if necessa ry. Write four short paragraphs on:
location
size and physica l backg round
c l i mate
population, language, and rel igion

Oth e r Countries

Australia
To Indonesia

Coral Sea

Indian Ocean

.....

..

........
. . . .. .

••••••••••

.

South Pacific
Ocean

a

500

miles

a

800

Tasman Sea

Southern Ocean

km.

I

ro of
!..Pic...Capri
- . ...
. �?��

I

Capital:

�

L-______________________

Total area:

�

To New Zealand

Canberra, in the Australian Capital Territory
7,682,300 sq. km.

Land: consists largely of plains and plateaux
7% arable
14% forest
54% grassland 25% other land: desert, mountains, wasteland
Climate:

ranges from alpine to tropical

Annual rainfall:

two-thirds of the continent is arid or semi-arid
(having little or no rain) - over 80 cm. rain in the
north and eastern and southern highlands

Population ( 1996 ):

18,423,000

Density:

2 per sq. km.

States and Territories: % of population:
New South Wales
34%
South Australia
Victoria
Tasmania
25 %
Queensland
18%
Australian Capital Territory
Western Australia
10%
Northern Territory
Language: English
Religion:

8%
2.5%
1.5%
1%

(+ some others)

mainly Christian

2 Now write a brief account of you r cou ntry, divided i nto fou r
paragraphs as a bove. If you do not know t h e exact figu res, guess o r
write in genera l terms.

3 Descri be you r home town so that the reader, who does not know it,
can get a clear pictu re of it.

23

U nit 3

Structure and

A Vocabulary: Countries

Vocabulary Aid
prefectures
boroughs
districts

plateaux

moorland

territories

forests

hills

provinces
ADMINISTRATIVE
AREAS

j ungles

valleys

zones

Nouns

plains

states

counties

deserts

regions

mountains

grasslands

TERRAIN

ram

sleet

flat

ICe

monsoon

grassy

snow
drought

hilly

flood

Nouns

Adjectives

rocky

mist/fog

typhoon
hurricane
cyclone

mountainous

clouds

sandy

dusty

wind
WEATHER
CONDITIONS

hot

oceanic

icy

humid
freezing

warm
Adjectives

CLIMATE

rainy

wet
cloudy

Note:

24

Mediterranean
desert

mistylfoggy

2

temperate

tropical

stormy

sunny
windy

continental

equatorial

cold

mild
dry

maritime

polar

Compare:

arid

X has a m i ld climate.
X has mild weather.

Can you thi n k of a ny more words to add to the a bove l ists? Th i n k
pa rticu la rly o f you r own cou ntry.
Are there any more categories or grou ps of words that you
wou l d find usefu l ? If so, try to make lists s i m i l a r to the a bove.

U nit 3

B Compass points (and adjectives)
North
(northern)
North-West
(north-western)

North-East
(north-eastern)

West
(western)

East
(eastern)
South-East
(south-eastern)

South-West
(south-western)
South
(southern)

C Location

.
D
·n .. .

X is situated/located
y

N

r

to ...
on ..

X is in the south of the country.
Y is to the north of the country.
The north of the country is
cold.
on/near the equator.
on/near the coast/sea.
inland.
Z is a neighbouring (or adjacent) country.

e.g.

Notel

lies (to lie) Is used fdr islands, For mainlafld qained to a
eonlinentl we wO!Jld use is situated in refertif!} to location.

. )
.

D Verbs to describe the composition of a country
X

comprise(s) . .
consist(s) of . . .
constitute(s) . .
is composed of . . .

(notice the use and differences)

E Approximation

8

�
==
---':
= = = = =apprOX imateI Y

�

)

(+ figure,
measurement, etc.)

25

Unit 3

F Qualification

G

The with names of countries, rivers and seas

1 The is not used with names of continents (e.g. Europe, not the
Europe), though it is used with some other geographical areas
(e.g. the Middle East, the Far East).
2 The + Republic of . . . (e.g. the Republic of France) .
3 The + country names in the plural (e.g. the United States o f
America, the UK, the West Indies, the United Nations).
4 Other country names are not used with the (e.g. Denmark) .
5 The + names o f oceans, seas, rivers (e.g. the Atlantic Ocean,
the Mediterranean, the Tigris) but not with names of lakes
(e.g. Lake Baikal).
6 The + names of mountain ranges (e.g. the Alps, the
Himalayas) . Some individual mountains are named with the
e.g. the Eiger, the Matterhorn. In other cases, the is not used
e.g. Mont Blanc, Everest.

26

U n it 4

U n it 4

Narrative

The introduction to many pieces of
academic writing contains some kind of
historical background or development.
This is usually in the form of narrative: an
account or description of events in the past
which entails following a time sequence or

Stage 1

D i ct i o n a r i es

chronological order (i.e. earliest first) . Verb
forms commonly used are the simple past
active (e.g. it organised), simple past
passive (e.g. it was created), and past
perfect active (e.g. it had developed).

1 Read the fol lowing ca refu l ly. Notice the structu re, time sequence,
dates, verb forms and prepositions used .
A History of English Dictionaries

10

15

20

25

30

Samuel Johnson

The beginnings of English dictionaries date from 1 604 when
the first 'hard-word dictionary' was pub lished . It contained
fewer than 3 000 difficu l t words, which were exp l ained by
easier ones. An important principle was introduced: that of
listing words in a l p habetica l order ( A-Z).
The first major dictionary was the Universal Etymological
English Dictionary by N athaniel Bailey, which was p u blished
in 1 72 1 . ( Etymology is the study of the origi n and history of
words and their meanings . ) This one vol u me conta i ned about
40,000 words.
One of the great landmarks in the history of dictionaries
was the publication in 1 75 5 of A Dictionary of the English
Language by Sam uel Joh nson. He built on the work of Bailey
and i l l ustrated the use of words by inc l u ding about 1 00,000
quotations from wel l -known a uthors from the 1 6th centu ry
onwa rds. Perhaps his most famous definition is that of 'oats':
'A grain, which in England is genera l ly given to horses, but in
Scotland su pports the people.'
I n America, in 1 828, Noah Webster pub lished An
American Dictionary of the English Language. Its two vol u mes
consisted of about 70, 000 words and inc l u ded scientific
terms. Webster incl u ded American pronunciation and
spel ling, for example 'co lor' for 'co l o u r' and 'center' for
'centre'.
Probably t h e most importa nt devel opment in t h e history of
dictionaries was the production of The Oxford English
Dictionary. Dr James Mu rray started to edit the enormous
work in 1 879, and the first part was p u blished in 1 884:
A - ANT, in 3 5 2 pages! It took another 44 years to com p l ete
the dictionary, i n 1 25 parts. The final work was p u blished in
1 928 in 12 vo l u mes covering 1 5 ,487 pages which inc l u ded
nearly 5 00,000 words.

2 Now make very brief notes of the most i mporta nt items of
i nformation in the passage.
27

:r:

Unit 4

Stage 2

The U n ited Nations

1 Read through the passage below, then write an a ppropriate word
i n each o f t h e spaces.
The United Nations (UN)

The
traced back

of the U N can
the League of N ations. This
which
an international
the Treaty of
created
Versail les
1 920 with the pu rpose
achieving world peace. Before 1 93 0, the
League, from its Geneva headq uarters,
international conferences and did u sefu l h u ma nita rian work.
, it fai led
deal effectivel y
internation a l aggression
forma l l y c l osed
the 1 93 0s. The League
superseded
1 946 and
the U nited N ations.
on 24th October 1 945, when
The UN was
ratified
the UN Charter
the 5 1 fou nder member cou ntries. A l most
are now members: 1 85
the cou ntries of the
in a l l .
to maintain international
The U N was
peace, and to encou rage international co-operation to overcome
economic, socia l , c u l tu ral and h u m a nitarian problems. Apart
organs of the U N
the
(The General Assem bly, The Secu rity Cou ncil etc . ) ,
o f t h e U N 's work i s done
agencies.
its specia lised bodies
are, perhaps,
of the best
the FAO, I LO, I M F, WHO, U N ESCO and U N I C E F.
D iscuss possible a lternative answers. When the text is complete,
conti nue with the fol l owing exercise.

2 Now make very brief notes of the most i m portant items of
i nformation in the passage.

Stage 3

U n ivers ities

1 Below is a passage traci ng the development of un iversities. Read it
through. When you have finished reading it do exercise 2 which
fol l ows the passage.
The Development of Universities

5

I

l,

28

The word ' u niversity' comes from the Latin word ' u niversitas'
meaning 'the whole' . Later, in Latin legal l anguage ' u niversitas'
meant 'a society, guild or corporation' . Th u s, in mediaeva l
academic use the word meant an association of teachers and
scho l a rs. The modern definition of a u niversity is 'an i nstitution
that teaches and examines students in many branches of
adva nced learning, awarding degrees and providing faci lities
for academic research' .

Unit 4

The origins of u niversities can be traced back to the Midd l e
Ages, especial ly t h e twelfth t o fou rteenth centu ries. I n the
early twelfth century. long before u niversities were organised
in the modern sense, students gathered together for higher
studies at certain centres of l earn ing. The earliest centres in
Eu rope were at Bologna in Ita l y, for l aw, fou nded in 1 088;
1 5 Salerno in Italy, for medic i n e; and Paris, France, for
philosophy and theo l ogy, fou nded in 1 1 5 0. Other early ones
in E u rope were at P rague, Czechosl ovakia, fou nded in 1 3 48;
Vien na, Austria, fou nded in 1 3 6 5 ; and Heidel berg, Germany,
founded in 1 3 86.
20
The first u niversities in England were established at Oxford in
1 1 85 and at Cambridge in 1 209. The first Scottish u niversity
was fou nded at St Andrews in 1 4 1 2. By com parison, the
ol dest u niversities i n the U SA are at Harvard, fou n ded in
1 63 6 , and Ya le, established in 1 70 1 .
25
I n the fifteenth and sixteenth centu ries, th ree more
universities were fou nded in Scotla nd: at G l asgow in 1 4 1 5 ,
Aberdeen in 1 494, and Edinbu rgh in 1 5 82. The next English
university to be fou n ded was not u ntil the nineteenth centu ry
- Londo n , in 1 83 6 . This was fo l l owed, l ater in the nineteenth
3 0 and early twentieth centuries, by the fou ndation of severa l
civic u niversities. These had developed from provincia l
col leges which were mai n l y situated in industrial areas.
Manchester, for examp l e, received its charter i n 1 880, and
Birmingham in 1 900. In addition, the federa l U niversity of
3 5 Wa les was established in 1 893 comprising th ree co l leges.
Severa l other civic universities were fou nded in the 1 940s
and 1 9 5 0s, such as Nottingham in 1 948, Southampton in
1 9 54 and Exeter in 1 95 7 . However, it was in the 1 9 60s that
the largest single expansion of higher education took p l ace in
40 B ritain . This expansion took th ree basic forms: existing
universities were enlarged; new u niversities were developed
from existing col l eges; and seven comp l etel y new u niversities
were fou n ded, most ly away from town centres and in the
cou ntryside, e.g. Warwick, 1 9 65. The Open U niversity was
45 fou n ded in 1 9 69: it is non-residential and uses
correspondence cou rses combined with TV and radio
broadcasts.
A big devel opment in recent years was an Ed ucation Act in
1 992 that a l l owed former polytech nics to become u n iversities.
5 0 Before the Act there were 47 u niversities in the U K; after the
Act there were 86 u niversities.
A l l B ritish u n iversities receive some government fu nding,
except B uckingham, which is B ritain's o n l y i ndependent
u niversity, fou nded i n 1 983 . This ru ns two-year cou rses
5 5 i nstead of the usual th ree years.
10

..
t
.,

To p : Bologna Un iversity
Centre: Vienna U niversity
Bottom: Christ Church College. Oxford

29

U n it 4

2 Below is a summary of the passage in sentences which are given i n
the wrong order. P u t t h e sentences i n t h e correct order.

a The quarter of a century from 1 940 to 1 965 was the period
when there was a big increase in the number of universities in
Britain.
b The Open University was founded in 1 969.
c The oldest American university was founded in the
seventeenth century.
d One of the original meanings of 'university' was an association
of teachers and students.
e There is one private university in Britain: it was established in
1 98 3 .
f After three more Scottish universities were established in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the next maj or developments
were not until the foundation of a number of civic universities
in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
g Oxford and Cambridge are the oldest English universities.
h Former polytechnics became universities in and after 1 992.
The first Scottish university was established in the early
fifteenth century.
There were gatherings of students at centres of learning in
Europe between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries.

3 Now make brief notes of the information relating to the
development of Engl ish u n iversities only. Put the heading
'Un iversities i n England' a bove you r notes.

4 Write a brief description in na rrative form of the development of
u n iversities in you r country. It does not matter if you do not know
precise dates or detai ls: a rough idea or an a pproxi mation wi l l be
sufficient. Refer to the Structure a n d Voca bulary Aid.

S If you a pply for a job or to study at a u n iversity etc., you norm a l ly
f i l l in an appl ication form or send a cu rricu l u m vitae (CV). This is a
brief account of you r backg round and career. Norma lly it incl udes
you r full name, date of birth, and then, u nder the hea d i ng of
'education', a summary of the secondary schools, co l leges or
u n iversities that you have attended, together with deta i l s of
exa m i nations passed and certificates and/or degrees awa rded. It is
usua lly fol l owed by a n accou nt of you r employment or career. The
i nformation is norma lly g iven in chronolog ica l order.
Write part of you r own CV. Only include i nformation under the
heading of 'education' (places of study and awa rds).

6 Write a l etter to a un iversity or a col lege applying to study there in
the next academic yea r.

30

Unit 4

Structure and

A Commonly used verb tenses, with examples

Vocabulary Aid
Present Simple (Active)

Past Simple (Passive)

it created

it was established

Past Perfect (Active)
it had developed

B Useful verbs/nouns
nouns

verbs

establishment
creation
foundation

to establ ish
to create
to found

C Useful vocabulary for describing post-school education
institutes of
higher education

(polytechnics
until 1 992 in UK)

universities -----I

INSTITUTIONS OF
HIGHER AND
FURTHER
EDUCATION

Scottish central
insti tutions

further education

adult education

tertiary

other s pecialist
colleges

COLLEGES

technology

art and design

agricultural

horticultural

31

U n it 4

D Useful vocabulary for describing universities
Council

Senate
Chancellor

UNIVERSITY
GOVERNMENT AND
ORGANISATION

Court

Boards

Committees and
Sub-Committees

Convocation

Departments

Vice-Chancellor

Others

Deans of
Faculties
and Schools

Schools

Faculties

---

Bursar/Director
of Finance

,.,/-"

.

. .
.

.

.. .

.

.
... .
. . • ..
.
. .
.
.
..
.
.

,,/" -"" " " /

Centres and Units

/

....

/

Registrar

Librarian

vacations/holidays
loan
ACADEMIC
YEAR

Autumn!
Michaelmas

terms

award

grant

Summer/
Trinity

sponsorship

Spring/Lent!
Hilary

scholarship

fee

bursary

visiting
principal
professor

director

dean

reader

technician

senior lecturer
lecturer

demonstrator

supervisor

research
assistant
counsellor

32

i
I

' 1-

STUDENTS

tutor

full-time
part-time

Unit 4

lectures

tutorials

TEACHING

first-degree
(B.A., B.Sc. )

higher degree
(M.A., M.Sc.,
Ph. D . )

practicals
certificate

QUALIFICATIONS

seminars/discussion
groups

diploma

experiments

projects
essays

tests

case study

library

continuous

viva voce
(oral)

examinations

laboratory

interviews

ASSESSMENT

thesis

computers

questionnaires

interview
disserta tion

observation

surveys

Common
room

essay

Students' Union

report

exam
answers

Refectory

Postgraduate
Society

project

Library
Health and
Welfare

societies and
clubs

paper

sports
flats

thesis

digs

article
hostels
dissertation

colleges

lodgings

halls of
residence

bed-sitter

b & b

Can you th i n k of any more words to add to the a bove l i sts?
2

Look at the Academic Writing diagra m . Make a l ist of words for
Academic Rea d i ng in the same way.

33

Unit 5

U n it 5

Definitions

The previous units were concerned with
describing things. When we describe things
we sometimes need to define them as well,
especially in academic writing, so that it is

Stage 1

perfectly clear what we mean. We may also
need to give examples of what we define,
and to classify. These will be covered in the
following units.

1 If w e look i n a dictionary for the word 'school' w e may find:

S i m p l e Defi n it i o n s

school an institution where chi l d ren a re ed ucated
More formally in writing we would put:
A school is an institution where chi l d ren are educated .
Look at these other exa mples:

A doctor is a person who gives medica l treatment to people.
A l u miniu m is a metal which is produ ced from bauxite.
Note:

Who is used for persons, which is used for inani mate objects and
anima ls, where is used for places.

Complete the fol lowi ng sentences in the sa m e way as the exa mples
a bove.

a

A college
students receive higher or
professional education.
treats people's teeth.
b A dentist
c Steel
is produced from iron and carbon.
(We can also say that steel is an alloy. )
lives in Africa and Asia.
d An elephant
e A professor
works in a university.
f A library
books are kept for borrowing
or referring to.

2 Join the sentences on the left below with the correct ones from
those on the right. Use a n appropriate relative pronoun to create a
relative cla use.

e.g. Bronze is an alloy. It is produced from copper and tin.
Bronze is an alloy which is produced from copper and tin.

34

Unit 5

1 An engineer is a person
2 A microscope is an
instrument
3 A generator is a machine
4 A botanist is a person
5 A square is a geometric
figure
6 A cucumber is a vegeta ble
7 An economist is a person
8 An encyclopaedia is a book

a It produces electricity.
b He studies the way in
which industry and trade
produce and use wealth.
c He treats the diseases of
animals.
d It makes distant obj ects
a ppear nearer and larger.
e He designs machines,
buildings or public works.
It gives information on
subj ects in alphabetical
order.
g He studies plants.
h It makes very small near
objects appear targer.
i It is long and round with a
dark green skin and light
green watery flesh.
It has four equal sides and
four right angles.

3 So far, i n the definitions we have looked at, the l a ng uage
construction has bee n :
Thing t o be defined + verb + general class word +
wh -word + particular characteristics, e.g. A botanist is a
person who studies plants.

Three types of mistakes may occur when a short definition is
being written:
1 An example may be given rather than a definition. An example
may, of course, follow a definition but it should not take its
place.
2 The general class, or the particular characteristics, may be
omitted from the definition. It will then be incomplete.
3 The word to be defined, or another form of it, may be used in
the definition itself. Clearly, if the reader does not already
understand the word, he/she will not understand the repeated
use of it.
Study the fol l owing defi n itions. Each one conta ins one of the
mistakes l i sted a bove. Ana lyse the type of m ista ke ( 1 , 2 , 3 a bove)
that has been made. Write the n u mber of the type of m istake in the
col umn provided. The fi rst one has been done as an exa mple.

35

Unit 5

DEFINITION
An ammeter is used to measure electric current.

Type of
mistake
2

lecturer is a person who lectures.

a

A

b

A dictionary is a book like the Longman D ictionary
of Contemporary English.

c

degree is given by a university to a student who
has passed the appropriate examinations.

A

4 Now re-write the defi n itions a bove i n a more satisfactory way.
An exa mple has been done for you .

An ammeter is an instrument which is used to measure electric
current.

Stage 2

Aca d e mic Defi n itions

1 Look at the fol lowi ng defin ition.
Plastics are compou nds made with long chains of carbon atoms.

You will notice that the wh-word has been omitted. A definition
written in this way uses a reduced relative clause. In full the
definition would be:
Plastics are compounds which are made with long chains of
carbon atoms.
Write out the fol l owing defi n itions in fu l l, putting the wh-word i n
t h e correct place.

a

Plastics are substances moulded into shape when they are
heated.
b A mineral is a structurally homogeneous solid of definite
chemical composition formed by the inorganic processes of
nature.

Write out the fol l owing defin itions om itting the wh-word so that a
reduced relative cla use is used.

c Rayons are man-made fibres which are produced from wood.
d A fossil is an inorganic trace which is buried by natural
processes and subsequently permanently preserved.

2 Often subj ects, particularly academic subjects, omit the wh-word
in the following way:

Plastics

Criminol ogy is the s tudy of crime (or i l l ega l acts).
Psychiatry is the study and treatment of menta l il l ness.
Po litics is the science of government.
Botany is the s cience of the structu re of p l a nts.
Write out definitions of the su bjects given below. Use the notes
g iven next to each su bject; write in the same styl e as a bove.

36

U n it 5

a Demography - study - population growth and its structure.
b Zoology - science - structure, forms and distribution of
animals.
c Biology - science - physical life of animals and plants.

3 Academic subjects may be more cautiously defined, thus:
Geography may be defined as the science of the earth's su rface.
L i ngu istics may be defined as the science of language.
Write out defi n itions of the fol lowing su bjects i n the same way as
a bove.

Sociology - science - nature and growth of s ociety and social
behaviour.
b Theology - study - religious beliefs and theories.
c Astronomy - science - sun, moon, stars and planets.
a

Write a defi n ition of you r subject in a s i m i l a r way to the a bove.

Stage 3

Exte n d e d Defi n it i o n s

1 It is possible for academic subjects to be defined more specifically.
Normally, this can only be done if more information is given.
Look at the fo l l owing exa mple (branch has the mea n i n g o f division).

Psychology may be defined as the branch of b i o logica l science
which s tudies the phenomena of conscious l ife and behav i o u r.
Write out defi n itions of the fol l owing su bjects in the same way as
a bove.

a

Criminal psychology - psychology - investigates the
psychology of crime and the criminal.
b Chemistry - science - deals with the composition and
behaviour of substances.
c Social economics - economics - is concerned with the
measurement, causes and consequences of social problems.

2 A definition may be extended in order to be more precise and/or
to give more information about the subj ect. Look carefully at the
following examples.
Sociology m ay be defi ned as the branch of sci ence wh ich stud i es
the devel opment and pri n c i p les of soc i a l orga n i sati o n . It is
concerned with group behav i o u r as d i sti nct from the behaviour of
i nd i v i d u a l s i n the group.
Econometrics may be defi ned as the branch of econom ics which
app l i es mathematica l and statistica l techn iq ues to econom ic
problems. I t i s concerned with test i n g the va l i d ity of economic
theories and provi d i ng the means of making quantitative
pred i ctions.

Now write a defi n ition of you r subject in a similar way to the a bove.

37

r

Unit 5

3 Use you r dictionary to check defin itions. Sometimes it is usefu l to
compa re defi n itions and expla nations in two or three dictiona ries:
they a re not a lways exactly the same, and they often g ive d ifferent
exa mples.
Check the defi n itions of the fol l owing:

a
b
c
d
e

standard of living
household
durable goods
consumer
perishables
These words a re usefu l for Unit 1 1 , Stage 3

Note:

Structure and
Vocabulary Aid

A Frequently used verb forms for definitions
Present Simple (Active and Passive)
IS

X

•

•

•

means . . .
describes . . .
is defined as . . .
is used . . .

e.g. A dialect is a variety of language.
It is spoken in one part of a country.

B Relative clauses
Relative clauses are often used to qualify or give extra
information, e.g.
An X is someone who sells Y.
Y is something which is produced by Z.

C Useful verbs:

x

38

is concerned with
deals with
relates to
involves

y

Unit 6

Unit 6

Exempl ification

The last unit was concerned with
definitions. It is often useful in definitions
to give examples: this action is known as
exemplification (or exemplifying) .
Exemplifications are often introduced by
for example or e.g.
Linguistics may be defined as the science of
l anguage, for example, its structu re, sou n d
systems and meaning systems.

Stage 1

Words

There are different ways of exemplifying,
e.g.
Geol ogy may be defined as the science of the
earth's history a s shown b y i ts crust, rocks, etc.
Geography may be defined as the science of the
earth's su rface. It is com:erned with a n u mber of
featu res, particularly physic a l , c l imate and
prod ucts.

(Here particularly has the meaning 'more
than some others' . )
Exemplification is commonly used
throughout academic writing.

1 Read the fol lowi ng ca refu l ly.
What is Language?

10

15

20

25

A l anguage is a signal ling system w h i c h operates with
symbol ic vocal sou nds, and which is u sed by a group of
people for the pu rposes of com m u nication.
Let us look at this defi n i tion in more detai l because it is
l angu age, more than anyth i ng el se, that distinguishes m a n
from the rest o f the a n i m a l world.
Other anim a l s, it is true, com m u nicate with one a nother by
means of cries: for exa m p l e, many birds u tter warning ca l l s at
the approach of danger; apes utter d i fferent cries, such as
expressions of anger, fear and p l easure. B ut these various
means of com m u nication differ i n i m portant ways from
h u man language. For insta nce, anima l s' cries are not
articu l ate. This means, basica l l y, that they lack structu re. They
l ack, for example, the k i n d of structu re given by the contrast
between vowels and consonants . They a l so l ack the kind of
structu re that enables us to divide a h u man utterance into
words.
We can change an utterance by repl acing one word in it by
another: a good i l l ustration of this is a sol dier who can say,
e.g. 'tanks approaching from the north ', or he can change one
word and say 'ai rcraft approaching from the north' or 'tanks
approaching from the west'; but a bird has a single a larm cry,
which means 'danger ! '
This is w h y t h e n u m ber o f signa l s that a n a nim a l c a n make
is very limited: the great tit is a case in po i nt; it has about
twenty different ca l l s, whereas in h u man l anguage the n u m ber
of possible utterances is infinite. It a l so exp l ains why animal
cries are very genera l in meaning.

39

Unit 6

Read the passage again and draw a I box I a round a l l the
expressions which have the same mea n i n g as for example. Notice
how they are used and the punctuation that is used with them.
Now d raw a line u nder all the examples, e.g.

I such as I

expressions of anger, fear and pleasure.

2 The fol l owi ng sentences a re based u pon the information conta i n ed
in the passage above. Complete the sentences making use of each
of the fol lowi ng words (use each one only once).

illustration
a

b
c

d

e

f

for example
a case in point
such as
for instance

an example

At the approach of danger many birds utter warning calls: this
of animals communicating with each
IS
other.
Cries,
those of anger, fear and pleasure,
are uttered by apes.
There are important differences between human language and
, animals' cries
animal communication:
are not articulate.
Animals' cries lack,
, the kind of
structure that enables us to divide a human utterance into
words.
of changing an utterance by
A good
substituting one word for another is a soldier who can say
'tanks approaching from the north' or 'tanks approaching
from the west'.
The number of signals that an animal can make is very limited:
the great tit is
_________

Stage 2

1 Look at the fol lowi ng:

Sente n ces

Language Families

Latin

I

Portuguese

I

Spanish

I

I

Romanian

French

Italian

etc.

This information can be expressed in two ways:
- There are a n u m ber of languages wh i ch a re descended from
Lati n: for example, Portuguese and Ita l i a n .
- There are a n u m ber o f l anguages, s u c h as Portuguese and
Ita l ian, which are descended from Lati n .
Write two sentences, as a bove, a bout the fol l owing information.

a

Latin

I

Romansch
40

I

Proven<;:al

I

I

Catalan

I

Sardinian

etc.

Unit 6

b

Sanskrit

I

Bengali

I

Hindi

t

I

Singalese

etc.

2 Read the fol l owing ca refu lly, espec i a l ly the pa rt in ita l ics.
There are now over two thousand different languages in the
world; an examination of them shows that m a ny of them belong
to a gro u p of rel ated l anguages, and some of t h ese groups are
very large, constituting what we can ca l l l anguage families.
An example of such a family is the Semitic group of languages.
Examples of members of the family are Arabic and Hebrew.

Now write out the last two sentences substituting the fol l owing
(not all the examples need to be l isted):

Germanic - e.g. English, German, Dutch, Swedish, Danish,
Norwegian.
b Sino-Tibetan - e.g. Thai, Burmese, Chinese, Tibetan.

a

Stage 3

Pa ra g ra p hs

1 Here a re some notes on writi ng systems. Read them ca refu l ly.
Writing Systems
Writing method of h u man interco m m u nication by means
of conventional visible marks.
=

Two main kinds of writing system :
1 ideographic (an ideogram or sign one idea/word e.g.
Chinese)
2 phonetiC: a sy l l abiC (one sign one sy l l able
e.g. Amharic, Japanese ka na)
b a l p habetic (one sign one sou nd e.g.
G reek, Arabic)
=

=

=

Now write a paragraph on writing systems based on the
i nformation i n the notes. Do not use notes i n you r writing, only
complete sentences. Beg i n the paragraph with a defi n ition of
writing. Then conti nue with a description of the writing systems,
beg i n n i n g the sentence 'The re a re . . .' Remember to use seq uence
ma rkers (connectives); practise using different expressions for e.g.
To p : Chinese
Centre: Japanese
Bottom: Greek

2 Write a defi n ition of you r own subject of study or resea rch . Describe
part of it, with exa mples.

41

Unit 6

Pyramid Discussion

Know i n g a Fore i g n
La n g u a g e

1 What a re the three main advantages of knowing a foreign
language? Select from the l ist be low. The order of the choices is not
i mporta nt.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

enables direct communication with a foreigner
gives access to a foreign literature
helps understanding of another culture
makes it easier to live/work in another country
helps if you want to study in another country
puts your own language and culture into perspective
helps you to understand the difficulties of people learning
your language
personal satisfaction in mastering the skill
adds another dimension to education
enables you to make closer contact with other nationalities
helps understanding of other attitudes
makes it easier and cheaper to conduct business with another
country
makes interpreters and translators unnecessary
enables you to understand information in another language
makes it easier to express your ideas to others

Final ly, add some adva ntages of your own .

2 Write a brief explanation of the advantages of knowing a foreign
language, with some exam ples.

Structure a n d

A Alternatives to the word

Vocabula ry Aid

B Other commonly used verb forms and methods of expression are:
shown
exemplified
illustrated

examples are: cases, instances.

8D
B

shows
exemplifies
illustrates

the following examples,
the following are examples of X:
a and b are examples of X.

8
42

Dickens and Hardy

D

U n it 7

Unit 7

Cl assification

When we divide something into groups,
classes, categories, etc. we are classifying
those items. The classification is normally

Stage 1

Criteria

made according to a criterion or several
criteria (standards or principles on which
j udgements are based) .

1 Read the fol lowing ca refu l ly. Then complete the sentences below.
State Schools in England and Wales

5

10

15

20

a

The vast majority of chi l d ren in B ritain (87%) attend state
( l ocal authority) schools which provide comp u l sory education
from the age of 5 to 1 6 years . These schoo l s can be c l assified
according to the age range of the pupi l s and the type of
education provided . Basica l l y, there are two types of schoo l,
primary and secondary, a l though in some a reas there are a l so
midd le sch ools. Primary schoo l s cater for chi l d ren aged 5-1 1 ,
and secondary schoo l s for ages 1 1 - 1 6 (and in some areas u p
t o 1 8 years). Primary schoo l s can b e su b-divided into infant
schoo l s (for ages 5-7) and j u nior schoo l s (for ages 7-1 1 ) .
Secondary schoo ls are norm a l l y of one type for a l l abi lities,
viz. comprehensive schoo l s. More than 90% of children in
state schoo l s attend this kind of schoo l . In some areas middle
schoo l s exist as an extra l evel after primary school for chi l d ren
aged 8 or 9 to 1 2 or 1 3 . Pupi l s then transfer to comprehensive
schoo l s . I n a very sma l l n u m ber of areas, p u pi l s may be
gro u ped according to their ability and selected by means of
an exa m i nation at the age of 1 1 . In these areas, grammar
schoo l s cater for those who pass the exa m . Those who fail go
to another secondary schoo l .
When p u pils reach the age o f 1 6 there may b e th ree
choices open to them . Firstly, they may leave schoo l .
Secondly, they may stay on a t school for two more years i f it
has a Sixth Form. Third l y, they may transfer to a Sixth Form
Co l l ege, a Tertiary Co l l ege or a F u rther Education Co l l ege.

Schools
the pupils' ages and
type of education.
school: primary
b There are
and secondary.
into infant
c Primary schools
and junior schools.
d Secondary school pupils
their ability.
e The criterion for classifying secondary schools is whether or
not there is
______

______

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

Top: Primary school
Centre: Comprehensive school
Bottom: Grammar school

_
_
__
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

43

Unit 7

2 The sentences below summa rise the information in the passage.
However, they are i n the wrong order. Put them in the correct
order by writi ng n u m bers 1 -7.

a Most children go to comprehensive schools.
b There may be three types of school: primary, middle and
secondary.
c At the age of sixteen, pupils may stay on at school, or leave
and go to a college, or leave school altogether.
d Exceptionally, children may take a selection exam at 1 1 years
and go to a grammar school if they pass.
e Most children go to state schools.
f If children attend middle schools, they go on to comprehensive
schools afterwards.
g Primary schools comprise both infant and j unior schools.

3 Look at Diagra m 1 . It shows a diagra mmatic classification of state
schools in England and Wa les. If necessa ry read the text again and
then com plete Diagram 1 , writing on the l i nes provided.
D iagram 1: State Schools in England and Wales

primary

-----

{

(5-7 years)
j unior

(

-----

)

( 8/9-12/1 3 years)

4 Without looki n g at the text again, write a brief description of the
information conta ined i n Diagra m 1 . Begin you r description:

There are two types of school: primary and secondary. Primary
schools can be sub-divided, according to age, into . . .
Note:

J.f any help i$ needed with tile language c1assificatio!1 in this
exercise, or the fdl lowing ones, turn tCi the Structure and
Vocabulary Aid at the end Of this unit.

5 Draw a classification diagram of the education system in you r
country. When you have completed it, write a brief descri ption of it.

44

U n it 7

Stage 2

Cl assify i n g

1 Read the fol l owi ng ca refu l ly. Then complete Diagram 2 ('The
Classification of B i rds') below.
The Classification of B i rds

10

15

20

25

30

35

Birds are instantly recognisable creatu res. Perhaps it is their
ability to fly that causes this. Some people might consider that
their shape was the most distinguishing feature. Everyone,
however, agrees on the characteristics that a bird possesses:
two wi ngs, feathers, two legs, a toot h l ess bil l or beak, warm
blood, and it lays eggs .
The modern system of c l assifyi ng birds is like a pyramid,
with the base formed by 85 1 4 different species. A convenient
definition of species is: an interbreeding group of birds which
do not norma l l y mate with other such grou ps.
The next division above the species is the genus, a gro u p of
species show i n g strong simi larities. The scientific name of a
bird gives the gen us first, then the species. Th us, the scientific
( Latin) name of the golden eagle is 'Aq uila ch rysaetos' (eagle,
golden). When there are strong points of similarity between
one gen us and another, these rel ated genera are grou ped
together and are said to belong to the same family. The names
of the 2 1 5 families of birds always end in 'idae' . The go lden
eagle, for i n stance, is one of the ' Fa l conidae' (fa l con fam i ly).
Fami lies with broadly simi l a r characteristics are grou ped
together into 27 orders, whose names end in 'iformes' . The
golden eagl e fa l l s into the order of ' Fa l coniformes' (fa l con- like
birds) . The la rgest order is ' Passeriformes' or perching birds.
This contains 63 families, and more species than all the rest
put together. The feet are designed so that they can grip a
perch, with th ree toes in front and one behin d. I n addition, a l l
are known a s song-birds . Two large fa mi lies within this order
are spa rrows, with 1 5 5 species, and crows, with 1 00 species .
Fin a l l y, al l of the orders make up the class 'Aves' (birds).
This system of c l assification has enabled scientists to
differentiate 85 1 4 species of birds. Pl acing a bird in the right
fami ly depends upon a n u mber of featu res. Among them are
externa l characteristics, such as the shape of the beak and
feet, and the colour pattern of the feathers. However, at the
level of order, the next higher
category, distinctions are
based on such featu res as the
structu re of the sku I I , the
a rrangement of the m u sc l es in
the l egs, and the condition of
the you ng at the time of
hatching.

Top: Golden eagle
Centre: Sparrow
Bottom: Crow
Right: Skull of owl

45

r-

Unit 7

Diagram 2 : The Classification o f Birds

Classification
divisions or
categories

Example of
classification
of Golden Eagle
(in English)
for each division

Ord.er

Fa.lcordke

GoId.eh £a. le
.9

Number of
the divisions

35111

2 From the i nformation in the text:
a give a definition of a bird.
b give a definition of a species.
c give two criteria that are used in assigning birds to the order
of Passeriformes.
d give two examples of families of birds from the order of
Passeriformes.
e list some of the general characteristics of families of birds, and
then of orders of birds.
3 Write a brief general description of the classification of birds. Base
you r descri ption u pon the i nformation conta i n ed in Diagra m 2.
Write in a s i m i l a r way to the fol l owing classification of vegeta bles.

There are six m a i n gro u ps of vegetabl es, for exa m p l e, l egu mes.
Each group may be divided into members, such as beans, and
each member may be sub-divided into types: Scarlet R u n ners are
an example. Final ly, each type may be fu rther su b-divided into a
n u mber of varieties, e.g. Pri zewin ner.

Stage 3

D i a g ra m s

1 Look ca refu l ly at Diagram 3. It is a tree diagram classification of
drinks. What a re the th ree crite ria that a re used in the
classification?

2 Write a description of the cl assification of drinks based on the
i nformation i n Diagram 3. Beg i n your descri ption:

Drinks may be classified into two main groups: . . .

46

U n it 7

Diagram 3 : A Classification o f Drinks

�

DRINKS

alcoholic

�
non-alcoholic

e.g. s� Jn�er /
hot /

, cold

" tt::J,�/ �
aerated

An aerated/carbonated/sparkling drink

/I

non-aerated

e.g. le�o�a �-cola
�ers
water water
e.g. milk
squashes or fruit Juices
cordials (i.e. (i.e. normally
diluted with undiluted)
water)
3 Now draw a d iagram for the su bject, or pa rt of it, that you a re
studying. Write a brief description of the classification d i agram,
making sure that it is clear what the criteria a re. If a classification
diagra m is not a ppropriate for you r su bject, perhaps a n
organ isationa l diagra m (showi ng hierarchy etc.) wou l d b e possible.

Pyra m id Discussion

Th e Pu rposes of
Com p u lsory E d ucat i o n

1 Which three pu rposes of compulsory ed ucation a re the most
i m porta nt? Select from the l ist below. The order of the choices is
n ot i m porta nt. Final ly, add a pu rpose of you r own .

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

t o teach reading, writing and arithmetic ( 'the 3 Rs' )
t o train for employment
to create discipline
to educate generally
to develop character
to teach sharing and co-operation with others
to teach self-control
to increase knowledge
to help become a useful member of society
to help to become self-aware
to build a foundation for later studies or work
to develop the mind
to encourage independence in thinking
to teach about the world around us
to enable one to be an individual

2 Write a brief description of the criteria that ca n be or sho uld be
used for determ i n i n g if education has been successfu l .
47

r-

Unit 7

A

Structure and

Classification

Vocabulary Aid
Useful Nouns

criterion/criteria
basis/bases
features
characteristics
categories
classes
groups
types
kinds
sorts
speCies

breeds
orders
divisions
families
members
sub-categories
sub-classes
sub-groups
sub-orders
sub-divisions

Useful Verbs

to . . .
classify
categorise
group
divide into
arrange (in)
put into
fall into

E>

place in
distinguish ( between)
differentiate ( between/from)
sub-classify
sub-categorise
sub-group
sub-divide

consists of . . .
comprises . . .

X may be classified

according to . .
on the basis of . . .
depending (up)on . .

The classification is based ( up jon . . .
Note the possible sequence:
·

. . may be divided . . .

·

. . may be sub-divided . . .

·

48

whether or not . . . there is X
whether there is X or not . . .

according to

'"-----'

.

. may be further sub-divided . . .

.

.

.

. .

Unit 7

B

Schools in England and Wales

State: non-fee-paying
secondary modern
or other school

�/

grammar
school
pupils: age 4/5-1 1

nursery school
or class

pupils: ages
1 1- 1 6 or 1 8

examination

co-educational
(mixed)
playgroup

infant
(4/5-7 )

""

J Ullior
( 7-1 1 )

/

co-educational

no selection

single sex

/ �
comprehensive school

middle school
( ages 8-9 to 1 2-1 3 )

______________

.-

(plus 6th form)

/

(if no Sixth form)
Sixth Form CollegelTertiary Collegel
Further Education College

mathematics

English
science

core subjects
MANAGEMENT
NATIONAL
CURRICULUM
LEAs (local
education
authorities)

governing
bodies

technology

streamingl
setting

teaching

art
muslC

mixed
ability

physical
education
modern foreign
language

General Certificate
of Secondary Education
( GCSE)

age 1 6

General National
Vocational Qualification
( GNVQ)

NVQ
GNVQ
EXAMINATIONS
(secondary school)

General Certificate
of Education: Advanced
Level ( GCE: A level)

age 18

Advanced Supplementary
Levels (A-S level)

49

U n it 7

Independent: private, fee-paying
nursery school
pupils: ages 1 11 1 2/1 3-1 8 / 1 9
pre-preparatory

Common Entrance Examination ___

SECONDARY

PREPARATORY
day
school

'public
schools'

boarding
school

pupils: ages 7-1 1/12/1 3

Are there any other words that you wou l d find it usefu l to add to
the a bove l ists?
2

50

Make a s i m i l a r l ist for the school system in you r cou ntry.

U n it 8

Un it 8

Compari son and Contrast

In most academic subjects, and in life
generally, we often need to compare and
contrast things. Similarities and differences
are often noted when classifying (see the
previous unit). The language of

Stage 1

comparison and contrast is frequently
needed when studying tables and other
statistical information. The language forms
used in this unit are to be found in
Appendix 1, Section 3 .

1 Look at Ta bles 1 and 2 and complete these sentences. If necessa ry,

Compa rison

look at Appendix 1 , Section 3, Comparisons. Put one or more words
i n each space.

Table 1
a The Nile is
b The Amazon is
c The Nile is
d The Mississippi-Missouri is
e The Yangtse is

the Mississippi-Missouri.
long
the Nile.
river in the world.
the Amazon.
river in China.

______

Table 2
month
f In Beijing, January is a
December.
g July is a
month
June.
h There is ...,-rain in May
in March.
rain; in other words, July is
July has the
month.
August is
warm
July.
months.
k December and January are
I The rainfall in February is
in March.
m April is
wet
October.
in May.
n The rainfall in November is
o July is the
month, and also
month.
______

______

_______

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

____

______

______

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

______

______

______

Satellite view o f the River Nile

Table 1 : The Longest Rivers in the World

1
2
3
4

The Nile (Afriea )-4, 1 60 miles ( 6,695 kilometres)
The Amazon (South Ameriea )-4,080 miles ( 6,570 kilometres)
The Mississippi-Missouri (North Ameriea )-3,740 miles ( 6,020
kilometres)
The Yangtse (Asia: China )-3 ,430 miles ( 5 ,520 kilometres)

Table 2 : Temperatures and Rainfall in Beijing, China

Month
Temperature ( 0 C )
Rainfall (em)

J

F

M

A

M

J

J

A

S

0

N

D

-4.7
0.2

-1.5
0.5

5.0
0.5

13.7
1.5

1 9. 9
3.6

24.5
7.6

26.0
23.9

24.7
1 6 .0

19.8
6.6

12.5
1 .5

3.6
0.8

-2 .6
0.2

Note:

The first month is January (J), the last is December (D).

51

U n it 8

2 Look at Ta ble 3. Write at least three sentences comparing the
mou nta i ns, which a re a l l i n the H i m a l ayas,
T
able 3: The Highest Mountains in the World
1 Everest ( Nepal/Tibet)

-

2 K2 (Pakistan/India)

2 8 ,250 feet ( 8 ,6 1 1 metres)

-

29,028 feet ( 8 , 8 4 8 metres)

3 Kangchenjunga (Nepal/Sikkim)
4 Lhotse (NepallTibet)

-

5 Makalu (Nepal/Tibet)
6 Dhaulagiri (Nepal)

-

-

2 8 , 1 6 8 feet ( 8 ,5 8 6 metres)

27,923 feet ( 8 ,5 1 1 metres)

-

2 7 , 8 0 5 feet ( 8 ,475 metres )

26,795 feet ( 8 , 1 6 7 metres )

Everest

3 Tu rn back to U n it 2 Stage 2. Look at the information in the table
about Ma nchester U n iversity students. Write severa l sentences
compa ring the i nformation: e.g. M ore students write essays than
a ny other type of writi ng.

Stage 2

1 Read the fol l owing ca refu l ly.

Exte nded Co m pa rison

10

Severa l years ago, some research was conducted at
Manchester U niversity into the amount of time that overseas
postgraduate stu dents spent listening to spoken English and
speaking Englis h . Sixty students co-operated by com p l eting
q uestionnaires.
It was fou nd that an average of 22% hours per week were
spent l i steni ng to English and only 6% hours speaking English
to Engl ish people. An analysis of the time spent listening to
English showed that lectu res accou nted for 5 hou rs and
seminars 2 hours. An esti mated 2 1/2 h o u rs were spent in serious
discussion while 2 hours were devoted to everyday smal l-ta l k.
Watching tel evision acco u nted for 5 1/4 hours and listening to
the radio 41/2 h o u rs. Going to the c i nema or theatre o n l y
accou nted for an average o f % hour p e r week.

The fol lowi ng sentences a re based u pon the i nformation conta ined
i n the text a bove. Complete the sentences by choosing from the l i st
of words and ph rases below: use each word once on ly. Make sure
that you keep the same mea n ing in the sentences as in the text.
Choose from these words: biggest; as much . . . as; more . . . than

(twice); least; most; not so many . . . as; as many . . . as; the same
. . . as; greater . . . than.
a The students spent considerably
time
speaking it.
listening to English
b A
amount of time was spent in lectures
in seminars.
c Nearly
hours were spent listening to the
radio
watching television.
______

______

______

______

52

l
i

Unit 8

popular way of listening to English
d The
was by watching TV.
e
number of hours was spent in everyday
small-talk
in taking part in seminars.
The
popular way of listening to English
was by going to the cinema.
hours were spent in serious discussion
g
in watching television.
time was spent in watching
h Nearly
television
in speaking English.
time was spent in serious discussion
in everyday small-talk .
The
surprise in the survey was the small
number of hours spent speaking English to English people.
______

______

______
______

______

______

______

2 You have j ust received a l etter from a friend, or acqua i ntance,
asking for some information a bout Engl ish dictionaries and asking
you to recommend a su ita ble one to help h i m/her learn English.
Look at Table 4: Engl ish Lea rners' Dictionaries, then on the basis of
that information write a l etter recommending one of the
dictiona ries. G ive reasons for you r choice. Look at the Structure and
Voca bu l a ry Aid at the end of this u n it and at the Notes i n the Key if
you need some help with the l etter.

Table
Feature

Words and
phrases

Examples

Pages

Longman Dictionary
of Contemporary
English

80,000

62,700

1,690

Longman Active
Study Dictionary

45,000

25,000

807

Oxford Advanced
Learner's
Dictionary

63,000

90,000

1 ,428

Oxford Student's
Dictionary

42,000

23,500

1 00,000

1 1 0,000

1 ,792

75,000

100,000

1,95 1

Words
ill ustra ted

748

Dictionary

Cambridge
International
Dictionary of
English
Collins COBUILD
English
Dictionary

4:

English Learners' Dictionaries
Appendices

Level

2,300

8

upper
intermediate
- advanced

16 pages

5

intermediate

10

upper
intermediate
- advanced

4

intermediate

2

intermediate
plus

1 ,700

2,000

intermediate
- advanced

53

I
I

�

U n it 8
__-,,--,--,-'C

Pyramid Discussion

Reasons for U s i n g

1 What a re the th ree main reasons for using a diction a ry? Select from
the l ist below. The order of the choices is not i m porta nt.

a D i cti o n a ry

1 to find meanings

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

to find synonyms
to check spellings
for word pronunciation and stress
to see the differences between confused words
for information about grammar
for information about style (e.g. formal, slang)
for usage and examples
for information about abbreviations, names etc. (in the
appendices)
10 to check idioms, phrases, proverbs
1 1 to extend knowledge of vocabulary
12 for accurate information about words
F i n a l ly, add any other reasons not g iven here.

2 Write a brief comparison of the main reasons for using a dictiona ry.

Stage 3

S i m i l a rities a n d
D i ffe ren ces

1 Similarities
There are a number of language constructions that express
similarity apart from those listed in Appendix 1 , Section 3 .
Look a t the fol lowi ng exa mples based on Ta ble 5.

a

Both Belgium and Canada have a small agricultural
population.
b Belgium and Canada are similar (or alike) in that they both
have a small agricultural population.
c Belgium, like Canada, has a small agricultural population.
d Canada is similar to Nepal in its percentage of forest area.
e Canada is similar to Nepal in that it has a large forest area.
Note:

Sti l l more sentences may be com pose d by using the connectives
l isted i n Appen d i x 2: Connectives (section l A: Addition), e.g.

Belgium has a small agricultural population; so, too, does
Canada.

Now write sentences s i m i l a r to those above, basi ng you r
i nformation on Ta ble 5.

54

Unit 8

Table

5:

Various Countries

�

Information

Belgium

Canada

Egypt

Ireland

Nepal

Population

10,140,000

29,972,000

64, 1 00,000

3,589,000

2 1 ,953,000

Area: sq. km.

32,800

9,22 1 ,000

995,000

6 8 ,900

1 3 7,000

Density: per sq. km.

323

3

52

53

136

Forest area

21%

39%

0

4.5%

39%

Arable land (for crops)

23.5%

5%

2%

13.5%

17%

Agricultural population

2%

3%

39%

12%

91%

Main languages

Dutch!
Flemish,
French

English,
French

Arabic,
French

English,
Irish

Nepali,
Maithili

Main religions

Christianity

Christianity

Islam

Christianity

Hinduism,
Buddhism

2 Differences
For a number of ways of expressing difference, see Appendix 1 ,
Section 3 and Appendix 2, Section 3 .
Look a t the fol lowing examples based o n Table 5 .

a

Ireland and Belgium are dissimilar i n that Ireland has a much
smaller population than Belgium.
b With regard to population, Egypt is (much) bigger than
Canada.
c The main religion in Belgium is Christianity, whereas in Egypt
it is Islam.
d Belgium has the largest percentage arable land area; however,
it has the smallest percentage agricultural population.
e Although Belgium has the largest percentage arable land area,
it has the smallest percentage agricultural population.
f On the one hand, Canada has the largest population; on the
other hand, it has the lowest density of population.
Now write some sentences s i m i l a r to those a bove, basi ng you r
i nformation on Ta ble 5.

3 Tu rn to U n it 3, Stage 2. Look at the table of i nformation a bout
Austra l i a beneath the map. Write a paragraph to compare and
contrast Austra l ia with Canada i n terms of a rea, population, density,
a rable land a rea a n d forest a rea.

4 Compa re a n d contrast your country with one of the cou ntries i n
Table 5. It is not necessa ry t o refer t o a l l t h e items. If y o u do not
know some of the deta il s for you r country, g ive a rough esti mation;
but try to find out by looking in a ppropriate reference books. If
necessa ry, look at the Structure and Voca bul a ry Aid i n this u n it a n d
i n U n it 3 t o help you .

55

U nit 8

Structure and

A

Vocabulary Aid

Qualification o f comparison

(X is)

considerably
a great deal
(very) much
(quite) a lot
rather
somewhat
a little
slightly
scarcely
hardly
only j ust

X is

exactly
precisely
just
virtually
practically
more or less
almost
nearly
approximately
about

exactly
entirely
quite

totally
completely
entirely
quite

the same as . . .

the same as . . .

different from Y.

X and Y are

different.
I
I

quite

I

56

X is not quite as/so

big
expensive
dear
etc.

U nit 8

B

Cardinal numbers

When writing figures involving thousands, a space is used to
separate the thousands if there are 5 or more digits:
e.g. 10 000 100 000 1 000 000 but 1 000
Alternatively a comma may be used to separate the thousands:
e.g. 1 ,000 1 0,000 1 00,000 1 ,000,000
A point is used in writing decimal fractions: e.g. 1 2 9 3 . 75

C

Ordinal numbers

Ordinal numbers are often written in abbreviated form:
1 st - first
2nd - second
3rd - third
4th - fourth
5th - fifth
'th' is used after all numbers except those ending in 1 , 2, or 3 .

D

Percentages

(%)

Figures

Language

10%
1 .5 %
0.5 %

ten per cent
one point five per cent or one and a half per cent
(nought) point five per cent or half a per cent

Note:

percentage = proportion
absol ute number = total number

57

Unit 9

U n it 9

Cause and Effect

In academic writing, events and actions are
frequently linked with their cause and
effect. Look at the following diagram,
which summarises this relationship.
back in time
or sequence
cause
reason

event
situation
action
idea
problem

Now look at these examples of the cause
and effect relationship.
connective

I
Prices rose. I
Heat

forward in time
or sequence
effect
consequence
result
solution

Any marks
on the leaves
are probably

There are a large number of ways to
express the relationship shown in the
diagram above. You will need to look at
Appendix 2, Connectives (Section I E :
Result) and especially the Structure and
Vocabulary Aid at the end of this unit
before doing the exercises.

causes

iron to expand.

As a result

fewer goods were
sold.

I The cause

Note:

Sometimes the cause will be named
before the effect; sometimes the effect will
be named first. e.g.
1)

X causes

+

2)

Y i s caused by

+

effect

Y (active verb)

+

effect
X (passive verb)

+

cause

1 The parts of the sentences below have been mixed up. Join the six

Con n ect ives a n d M a rkers

pa rts on the l eft with the correct pa rts from the n i ne on the right.

There is acid in that bottle: therefore . . .
2

is in a box; the effect is

underlined.

cause

Stage 1

I the same virus

due to

a

the road was icy.

The effect of the fluctuation in temperature . . .

b

he was unsuccessful.
prolonged illness.

3

Bad labour relations caused . . .

c

4

The accident occurred because of . . .

d

it must be handled very carefully.

5

He passed his examination because . . .

e

careful storage .

6

Delayed treatment often results in . .

g

the strike.

the icy road conditions.

.

h

he worked hard.
was to kill the laboratory specimens.

58

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