This is a draft of some class materials I use to teach non-technical decoding of Japanese texts into English (and other languages). The objective is to allow students to explore a variety of linguistic phenomena in Japanese and to use TAP (Think Aloud Protocol) to report their findings in class.

1. Decoding Japanese:
a decoding / translation resource book with exercises and lecture notes –
PART 1
(For the module JS3079)
Revised June 2016
DRAFT Ver 1.
Prepared by RK
For in-class use only; to be used with materials available on Blackboard and the Reading List Online

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INTRODUCTION
This booklet contains a selection of RESOURCES and EXERCISES in DECODING Japanese non-technical
TEXTs through a variety of Discussions (mainly TAP – Think Aloud Protocol), and Learning Activities that were
used in class and as coursework on a final year Japanese undergraduate module.
Disclaimer: This is a draft version that captures areas of in-class discussion, coursework and student-led activities.
The explanations provided are not meant to be exhaustive as this is not a course-book but an attempt to design a
resource-book. The course-book is in preparation (both in paper and in electronic version). Most resources are
available in an extended version on the e-learning platform (Blackboard).
Explanations of TERMS
RESOURCES (on Blackboard)
Annotated descriptions of easily accessible support materials like:
 dictionaries, thesauri, corpora, etc. (on-line/off-line, applications paper)
 terminology lists provided by institutions and organizations
 specialist books and articles on translation, both theoretical and practical
 websites relevant to Japanese/English translation/interpreting

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 templates and samples of documents (e.g. 履歴書, a CV, a Birth Certificate) – both bi-/ multi- lingual and
mono- lingual (in Japanese only)
 lists of frequent abbreviations and their equivalents
 frequency-based lists of figurative expressions to speed up the decoding process
 important examples of existing bilingual texts (both ways), especially official translations
 conversion tables (e.g. Japanese 平成 23 年 Heisei 23 is [A.D.]2011; 1 坪 1 tsubo is ca. 3.3 m2
)
 examples of quality and assessment procedures in translation (e.g. ATA translation evaluation procedure)
Your Turn
 ADD your own ideas ________________________________________
It is important to build a collection of resources specific to the area you deal most often with. When you use a CAT
tool (SDL Trados, MemoQ, Memsource etc.) you will find it easier to translate accurately if you add frequently used
words and expressions to the Term Base.
DECODING
Decoding is tentatively defined here as a set of pre-translation activities / operations on the source text that enable
successful translation into the target language.

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Simple / primary decoding: The process of identifying and assigning accurate meanings and functions to the
discrete units of a text that can be processed further into the units of translation and ultimately into a target
text. (see below).
Extended decoding includes ANNOTATIONS and may include production of a STORYBOARD – a concise
description of major events in a longer narrative), it also comprises such tasks as summarizing and paraphrasing
(with or without translating) the ST with a focus on specific areas as well as adding background information in an
already translated text.
Decoding is a competence that requires not only systemic linguistic and cultural knowledge but also skills in
cognitive processing of information as well as constant updating on current affairs.
TEXT
The concept of the text is used here in its broadest sense as:
a meaningful configuration of language created with the intention of communicating
(Beaugrande, 1980).
Thus, this concept could apply to all written and spoken utterances, anything with semiotic content that can be
interpreted and represented in the mind.

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ACTIVITIES and TASKS
They draw your attention to important areas in Japanese/English translations.
QUIZZES
designed primarily to assess the level of comprehension and/or the existing knowledge of a topic/area (for example, country names written in kanji)
YOUR TURN
sections invite you to investigate more on a selected topic, usually with an indication of the source; they may take more time and usually require
the use of dictionaries
REMEMBER LISTs
contain frequent language items, ideally to be remembered and expanded as a part of ‘ready-to-use’ repository and personal development
EXPLORE / CHECK IT OUT
sections contain areas like websites/blogs that are worth investigating
FOCUSSED READINGS and DISCUSSIONS
Provide you with an opportunity to read and discuss a number of scholarly articles and book sections related to translation
ASSUMPTIONS
Certain assumptions were made regarding the level of language skills of the students as well as the type of texts
discussed here.
This booklet is designed for participants with upper-intermediate/advanced Japanese language skills [equivalent
to the (New) JLPT (Japanese Language Proficiency Test) Level N2 or above].

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The texts and examples discussed here are written in contemporary standard Japanese on a range on (non-
technical) topics, with only occasional use of dialect, slang or other less frequently used vocabulary, grammar or
register.
The majority of texts are written in 漢字かな交じり文 using 現代仮名遣い. Both vertical and horizontal (or mixed)
writing conventions are used.
BASIC STAGES IN DECODING (with focus on written texts)
1. Collecting the background information – this normally includes the details about the SOURCE TEXT
(and/or the AUTHOR/ORIGINATOR), identification of the GENRE, the original FORMAT (e.g. a book, a
website article, a document), the TIMELINE with any information on the changes in the original (if relevant)
Other (checklist):
original target audience
existing translations (not necessarily into English)
the purpose of decoding, e.g. search for a specific piece of information, as a part of the translation process,
etc.
expectations regarding the final OUTPUT FORMAT, for example: full translation, summary, highlighting
specific information only

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2. Scanning and screening (visual) – this helps to determine the kind (GENRE) of the text and the level of
difficulty as well as the required background knowledge (and hence the resources that will be needed to
decode the text) and the time to produce the expected OUTPUT FORMAT
3. Text / script processing –
identifying unknown kanji and kanji compounds (熟語 jukugo)
assigning READINGS and preliminary MEANINGS to kanji and kanji compounds
highlighting possible proper nouns (names of people, places, institutions)
4. Parsing / chunking the text into discrete units (see chart of Japanese sentence elements)
5. Assigning MEANINGS and FUNCTIONS of the parsed elements (chunks):
This stage includes:
 assigning the appropriate denotational (dictionary-based) and/or connotational (extended, figurative)
meaning(s) within the parsed elements
 assigning the functions of grammatical markers
 assigning the participant roles and pragmatic functions to the appropriate elements of the text

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 establishing links between various levels of text (phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs …)
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE IN CONTRASTIVE PERSPECTIVE
(Japanese – English)
Your Turn
Obana1
gives an insightful and informative overview of the major characteristics of Japanese in four chapters:
1. Japanese as a topic-comment language
2. Japanese as a speaker-oriented language
3. Japanese as a language of uchi and soto
4. Japanese as an elliptic language
TASK
In groups, examine a chapter of your choice and report the challenges to translation into English that may result from the
characteristics presented. If you are a speaker / learner of a language other than English provide comments from the
perspective of that language.
Give examples in Japanese and English (other language) to illustrate your points.
1
Obana, Y. 2000. Understanding Japanese: A handbook for learners and teachers. Tokyo: Kurosio Publishers.

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TRANSLATION COMPARISON
Your Turn
Examine the two translations (A and B) of a Japanese Source Text into English and prepare your answers to the tasks below.
TT = Target Text A
Literature lasts far longer than other types of
writing. Many ancient works of literature, written
a thousand or two thousand years ago, are still
read today. Anybody who enjoys books could
give numerous examples. Of course this begs the
question. ‘What makes a text literature?’ This is a
very difficult issue. A discussion as to whether,
for example, Plato’s works were literature or
philosophy would just end in confusion. So I will
avoid that type of debate, and take literature to
be writing of a sort that can be read for pleasure.
With this classification, it is clear that literature
has a far better chance of surviving than books
on law, medicine, history, divinity, astrology or
grammar.
Words: 117
Characters (no spaces): 582
ST = Source Text (Japanese)
書物の寿命ということを考えてみると、文芸書が
ずいぶん有利な位置にあることはすぐにわか
る。少し本を読む者ならば、千年二千年前に書
かれて今も読まれる作品を何点でもあげること
ができるだろう。もちろんこの場合、何をもって文
学と呼ぶかは難しい問題で、プラトンの著作は
文芸か哲学かなどと論じ始めると話は混乱する
ばかりだ。そういう論議に足を踏み入れるのは
やめて、少なくとも楽しんで読めるだけの文体を
備えたものを文学としよう。この基準で分類して
みれば、法学や医学、歴史や神学や占星術や
文法などの本に比べて、文学書は後世に残る率
が格段に高いのは歴然としている。この傾向を、
文学書は一般読者を得やすくて大量に作られる
からということで説明できるだろうか。
３１６字
TT = Target Text B
When considering the longevity of books, it
quickly becomes apparent that literary works
enjoy a clear advantage. Anyone who’s done a
little reading can probably name a few literary
works that were written one or two thousand
years ago.
Of course, the term literary work is not an easy
one to define. A debate, for example, on whether
the writings of Plato are literary works or
philosophy would soon end in quagmire. To
simplify matters, I’ll use the term literary work in
its broadest sense – that is, any written work that
is read simply for pleasure. Of all the books
passed down through generations, those that
meet this “literary” criterion far outnumber
those of other disciplines such as law, medicine,
history, theology, astrology, and grammar. One
might assume that this tilt toward the literary
can be explained simply by the fact that literary
works have been produced in greater numbers
for a more general readership, but this was not
always the case.
Words: 162
Characters (no spaces): 802

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Translation comparison tasks:
Task 1. EQUIVALENTS: Find out how some words and phrases are represented in the two Target Texts, if possible (there may be more than one answer).
Target Text A Source Text Target Text B
書物
文芸書
文学
文学書
著作
論議
神学
混乱
足を踏み入れる
後世に残る率が格段に高い
Task 2. Make a list of differences between the two translations of the Source Text
Task 3. Your version of the translation:
Provide your version of the translation below. You may provide your own translation, amend one of the two TTs or merge and amend both.
Prepare to discuss your version with other students during the TAP (Think Aloud Protocol) session.
Source Text: 科学と知的好奇心 池澤夏樹 （いけざわ・なつき）
Text A: Translated by Angus Turvill; Text B: Translated by Gary Alderson
Published in: The 5th
Shizuoka International Translation Competition; Winning Translations (2005) 第五回 しずおか世界翻訳コンクール 優秀作品集

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MAJOR STRATEGIES used in translation (with examples)
Focussed Readings: Strategies overview – Japanese language specific
The discussion on mechanisms and strategies in non-technical translation from Japanese to English is based on
the following articles (available on Blackboard). Please read by due date and make notes of the main points
made.
Bode, J., 2010. Translation strategies for the Japanese written language: Revisiting Chesterman’s production strategies. Gaikokugo kyoiku
ronshu, 32.
Higashino, Y., 2001. Cultural equivalence: its effectiveness and complications -- Has “white gloves” achieved the equivalent effect of “shiro
tabi”? Interpretation Studies, 1, pp.53–63.
Kataoka, M., 2016. Emending a Translation into “Scrupulous” Translation: A Comparison of Edward G. Seidensticker’s Two English
Translations of “The Izu Dancer.” SOKENDAI, 12, pp.83–101.
Seidensticker, E., 1980. Chiefly on Translating the Genji. Journal of Japanese Studies, 6(1), pp.15–47.
Tobias, S., 2009. Untangling and Re-spinning the Web: Translations of Metaphor in Tanizaki’s “Shisei.” The International Journal for
Translation & Interpreting Research, 1(1), pp.44–54.

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Your Turn
Examine the opening lines of ‘Snow Country’ by Kawabata Yasunari translated into a number of languages and
discuss how different elements of the Source Text were translated into Target Languages. What might be the
reasons for these differences?
Can you provide your own examples (from ‘Snow Country’ or other literary works, if possible) with comments on
the mechanisms of translation.
1. 国境の長いトンネルを抜けると雪国であった。夜の底が白くなった。
信号所に汽車が止まった。川端
か わ ば た
康
や す
成
な り
「雪国」
ENG – Snow Country
The train came out of the long tunnel into the snow country. The earth lay white under the night sky. The train pulled up at a signal stop. (Translated by
Edward G. Seidensticker, 1958).
FRA – Pays de neige
Un long tunnel entre les deux régions, et voici qu'on était dans le pays de neige. [TEXT MISSING]
GER – Schneeland
Jenseits des langen Tunnels erschien das Schneeland. Der Nacht Tiefe wurde weiß. Die Dampflok hielt an einem Signal. (Translated by Tobias Cheung, 2004)
KOR 설국

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국경의 긴 터널을 빠져나오자, 눈의 고장이었다. 밤의 밑바닥이 하얘졌다. 신호소에 기차가 멈춰 섰다.
RUS Снежная страна
Поезд проехал длинный туннель на границе двух провинций и остановился на сигнальной станции. Отсюда начиналась снежная страна. Ночь
посветлела.
POL Kraina śniegu
Z długiego tunelu przecinającego granicę dwu okręgów wjechało się w krainę śniegu. Dno nocy zamajaczyło bielą. Pociąg zatrzymał się pod sygnałem.
(Translated by Wiesław Kotański, 1969)
SCRIPT DECODING
Kanji decoding
Background information
The Chinese characters used in Japanese (kanji) are multi-stroke, logo-phonetic script, which means that in
order to successfully decode them we need to process the following elements:
recognize the shape of the individual kanji correctly (many errors occur at this stage, especially when the
kanji in the text, usually less common, is very similar to another, more frequently used one)
examine the compound in which the kanji appears in order to identify its semantic role
assign the correct phonetic value(s); this may be very straightforward in some cases but may require a
more detailed analysis in case of more complicated, specialist texts

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The most commonly used strategies for kanji processing are:
De-compounding: revealing and analysing the elements of the structure of a kanji compound
For example, 新現実主義者
し ん げ ん じ つ し ゅ ぎ し ゃ
can be de-compounded into: 新 new/neo 現実 real 主義 -ism/ideology/tendency
者 person/member of = a member [representative] of the neo-realism (in art/literature)
De-blending: revealing the full structure of the blend and then performing the de-compounding
米空母
べ い く う ぼ
＝米国
べ い こ く
｛の｝航空母艦
こ う く う ぼ か ん
US aircraft carrier
NOTE that the above strategies can be also applied to kanji-kana compounds and that in many cases both
strategies need to be applied simultaneously.
Your Turn
De-compounding and de-blending
TASK: Discuss the following examples of (de-) compounding and (de-) blending. Find similar examples.
Are there any differences in translation into English of the compounds and the blends?

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違憲
い け ん
憲法違反
け ん ぽ う い は ん
原発
げんぱつ
原子力発電所
げ ん し り ょ く はつ で ん じ ょ
国連
こ く れ ん
国際連合
こ く さ い れ ん ご う
日銀
にちぎん
日本銀行
に ほ ん ぎ ん こ う
学割
が く わ り
学生割引
がくせいわりびき
入試
に ゅ う し
入学試験
に ゅ う が く し け ん
阪神
はんしん
大阪
おおさか
（阪＝はん）and 神戸
こ う べ
（神＝しん）
京浜
けいひん
東京 （京＝けい）and 横浜
よこはま
（浜＝ひん）
脱
だつ
サラ 懐
なつ
メロ 革
かわ
ジャン
都道府県
と ど う ふ け ん
中小企業
ちゅうしょうきぎょう
Decoding AFFIXES
TASK: Use a dictionary to determine the meanings and readings of the affixes in bold.
各 諸 同: 各省庁
かくしょうちょう
諸国
し ょ こ く
同省
どうしょう
日本丸 ひかり号 日本風 平安朝
山田ら 山田（等） 山田被告 山田署長 山田殿 故山田氏 あの山田め
前首相 元首相

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不 不安定
ふ あ ん て い
不自由
ふ じ ゆ う
不便
ふ べ ん
不幸
ふ こ う
非 非常識
ひ じ ょ う し き
非科学的
ひ か が く て き
非道徳的
ひ ど う と く て き
無 無職
む し ょ く
無条件
む じょう け ん
無制限
む せ い げ ん
無関心
む か ん し ん
未 未確認
み か く に ん
未成年
み せ い ね ん
未満
み ま ん
未知
み ち
未婚
み こ ん
料 入 場料
にゅうじょうりょう
授業料
じゅぎょうりょう
手数料
て す う り ょ う
保険料
ほ けんり ょう
代 電気代
で ん き だ い
電話代
で ん わ だ い
修理代
し ゅ う り だ い
タクシー代
だい
費 交通費
こ う つ う ひ
医療費
い り ょ う ひ
光熱費
こ う ね つ ひ
生活費
せ い か つ ひ
府 1. 内閣府
な い か く ふ
2. 京都府
き ょ う と ふ
省 1. 外務省
がい む しょう
文部科学省
も ん ぶ か が く し ょ う
2. 雲南省
うんなんしょう
庁 防衛庁
ぼうえいちょう
文化庁
ぶんかちょう
宮内庁
く な い ち ょ う

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Transcoded kanji
Kanji rewritten into kana or Roman alphabet that often appear in newspaper headlines and scientific texts to
convey additional meanings.
TASK: Consider alternative translations based on the transcoded kanji. Use a corpus to find example sentences.
米 コメ 人 ヒト 鍵 カギ 謎 ナゾ
Ateji 当て字 – kanji used for their phonetic value, usually irrespective of their semantic value
倶楽部
く ら ぶ
クラブ 珈琲
こーひー
コーヒー
FOCUS ON Country and region names written in kanji.
Of special importance are country and region names The form blends with a number of common and proper
nouns.
英吉利 イギリス (英 EI )
亜米利加 アメリカ (米 BEI) 2
2
When used independently (without modification), country names are usually written in katakana in full: アメリカ合衆国
がっしゅうこく
(United States of America; NOTE that

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仏蘭西 フランス (仏 FUTSU)
独逸 ドイツ (独 DOKU)
露西亜 ロシア (露 RO) for the Soviet Union (ソ連),ソ, e.g. 日ソ
欧羅巴 ヨーロッパ (欧 Ō)
and their shortened forms (in brackets) used frequently in documents, specialist texts, and newspapers
Your Turn
TASK: Provide the readings and meanings of the following compounds:
在日英国大使
日英同盟
大東亜共栄圏
日露戦争
欧米化 欧米人
欧州連合
脱亜入欧
the word ‘[US] state’ is expressed by the kanji 州 フロリダ州
しゅう
The State of Florida), フランス革命
かくめい
The French Revolution

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2. Foreignization of kanji /‘Superscripted kanji’ – the kanji compound preserves the meaning; the reading is
usually in katakana, indicating the loan-word status.
(ビール), 麦酒 [literally: barley alcohol]
(マッチ), 燐寸
(ガラス), 硝子
(ガス), 瓦斯
This is still a productive way of introducing new concepts into the Japanese language used in commercial
practice as well as in science and the humanities. Many writers rely on this method in fiction writing.
Some of these kanji compounds can be treated as a form of ATEJI as they indicate the reading as well.
Kanji Readings
Quiz
Decode the readings and meanings of the following kanji compounds (use a dictionary if necessary).
How many did you know for each level of difficulty?
A. Elementary school level 小学校で習う漢字 (一部)
１．明日＿＿＿＿＿ ２．昨日＿＿＿＿＿３．今日＿＿＿＿＿４．今朝＿＿＿＿＿＿５．今年＿＿＿＿＿ ６．一日 a. ＿＿＿＿＿、b.＿＿＿＿＿、c.＿＿

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＿＿＿７．果物＿＿＿＿____８．七夕＿＿＿＿＿ ９．景色＿＿＿＿＿＿１０．川原＿＿＿＿＿＿１１．迷子＿＿＿＿＿１２．八百屋＿＿＿＿
１３. 博士＿＿＿＿１４．眼鏡＿＿＿＿１５．大人＿＿＿＿＿＿＿
B. Secondary school level 中学校・高等学校で習う漢字(一部)
1. 心地＿＿＿＿＿＿２．田舎＿＿＿＿＿＿３．仲人＿＿＿＿＿＿４．行方＿＿＿＿＿＿５．梅雨＿＿＿＿＿＿６．土産＿＿＿＿＿＿
７．大和＿＿＿＿＿＿８．日和＿＿＿＿＿＿９．若人＿＿＿＿＿＿１０．玄人＿＿＿＿＿１１．素人＿＿＿＿＿１２．二十歳＿＿＿＿
１３．息子＿＿＿＿＿１４．雪崩＿＿＿＿＿１５．足袋＿＿＿＿＿１６．笑顔＿＿＿＿＿１７．紅葉＿＿＿＿＿１８．浴衣＿＿＿＿＿
１９．相撲＿＿＿＿＿２０．風邪＿＿＿＿＿
C. University Level 大学レベル(一部)
1. 海女＿＿＿＿＿＿２．乙女＿＿＿＿＿＿＿３．師走＿＿＿＿＿４．時雨＿＿＿＿＿＿５．為替＿＿＿＿＿＿６．芝生＿＿＿＿＿＿＿
７．読経＿＿＿＿＿８．砂利＿＿＿＿＿＿９．名残＿＿＿＿＿＿１０．草履＿＿＿＿＿＿１１．雑魚＿＿＿＿１２．祝詞＿＿＿＿＿
D. Other kanji compounds with difficult readings 誤りやすい読み方

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１． 遊説＿＿＿＿＿＿２．意図＿＿＿＿＿＿＿３．出納＿＿＿＿＿＿４．夏至＿＿＿＿＿５．建立＿＿＿＿＿＿６．貴重品＿＿＿＿＿＿
７．発足＿＿＿＿＿＿８．発作＿＿＿＿＿９．読点＿＿＿＿＿＿１０．引率＿＿＿＿＿１１．解毒剤＿＿＿＿１２．風情＿＿＿＿＿
１３．流布＿＿＿＿＿１４．印象＿＿＿＿＿＿１５．由来＿＿＿＿＿１６．強引＿＿＿＿
REMEMBER: Kanji compounds for Asia – proper names
Kanji compounds referring to selected countries and regions in Asia
China:
中華人民共和国 People’s Republic of China
北京 ペキン Beijing (Pekin) NOTE: the Japanese equivalent is ‘pekin’
チベット(西蔵
せいぞう
) Tibet
中華民国
ち ゅ う かみ ん こ く
（台湾
たいわん
）Republic of China (Taiwan)
Note also the old word for China シナ in some geographical terms:
東
ひがし
（ 南
みなみ
）シナ海 East [South] China Sea
韓国
か ん こ く
Republic of Korea (ROK), South Korea

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朝鮮民主主義共和国
ち ょ う せ ん み ん し ゅ し ゅ ぎ き ょ う わ こ く
（北朝鮮
きたちょうせん
）Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, North Korea
平壌 ＝ピョンヤン
満州 （まんしゅう）[hist.] Manchuria, 満州国
まんしゅうこく
[hist.] Manchukuo
Find more examples and share in class.
REMEMBER: Kanji compounds that refer to Japan
Kanji used to refer to Japan, the Japanese language and the Japanese people
国 （こく）a country, a nation
国産 （こくさん）(a product) made in Japan;
国語（こくご） ‘national language’, refers to the Japanese language taught in Japanese schools or to a subject of
study at the universities in Japan; monolingual dictionaries of Japanese are referred to as 国語辞典（こくごじて
ん）
国語学 （こくごがく） Japanese approach to teaching and learning Japanese (as opposed to 日本語学 にほんごが
く)
わが国 （わがくに）‘our country’ [Japan]

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The following kanji are frequently used in different context to refer to Japan, the Japanese people and things
Japanese in general.
和 （わ）邦 （ほう） 大和（やまと）3
Examples:
和（わ）
和室
わ し つ
Japanese-style room [in a hotel, for example]
和食
わ し ょ く
Japanese food
和服
わ ふ く
Japanese clothes, especially ‘kimono’
和語
わ ご
Japanese indigenous words (as opposed to loan-words from Chinese 漢語
か ん ご
or Western languages
外来語
が い ら い ご
), cf. 大和言葉（やまとことば）below
邦（ほう）
The standard antonym of 和（わ）, 邦（ほう）and 大和（やまと）is 洋（よう）, for example: 洋食（ようしょく）Western food/meal、洋室（ようしつ） a Western-
style room [in a hotel] 、洋楽 （ようがく）Western music、洋画（ようが） Western films/cinema

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邦人
ほう じん
a Japanese national living abroad
邦楽
ほ う が く
traditional Japanese music
邦画
ほ う が
Japanese painting or Japanese film (cinema)
Note: 異邦人
い ほ う じ ん
non-Japanese, foreign national
大和 （やまと）
大和言葉
や ま と こ と ば
also 和語
わ ご
: indigenous Japanese words (as opposed to loan-words from Chinese 漢語 or Western
languages 外来語)
大和魂（やまとだましい）the spirit of Japan
大和撫子（やまとなでしこ）a (typical, beautiful) Japanese woman
大和絵 （やまとえ）Japanese painting
Kana decoding
At the initial stage of script decoding, it is also necessary to highlight any unfamiliar katakana/hiragana words
and compounds for further investigation.

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Unfamiliar katakana words may be blends that require de-blending or neologisms that need to be consulted with
native speakers or on-line dictionaries of current words.
Blending in katakana compounds (to be expanded by further examples and exercises).
セクハラ アメフト
Romanization
Refer to the section on Romanization in Monumenta Nipponica Style Sheet (July 2008), US Library of Congress
Romanization Guide (and associated Tables) for Japanese. All the documents are available on Blackboard.
In addition, Monumenta Nipponica Style Sheet contains useful guidelines on Romanizing and converting pre-
modern Japanese CSIs (Culture Specific Items) such as dates in the lunar calendar or names of pre-Meiji
provinces.
SEMANTIC / LEXICAL DECODING
Semantic / Lexical decoding involves analysis of the meaning of a word, expression, collocation in order to
assign the appropriate equivalent in the process of translation. Semantic decoding usually follows the action of
parsing.
The two major concepts related to lexical decoding are:

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DENOTATION: de-contextualized, dictionary meaning(s) of words and expressions.
Consult a specialist dictionary, depending on the type of text.
Make sure you decoded the meaning correctly. Always check for multiple meanings (sometimes cases of
polysemy) when in doubt:
勉強する 1. to study 2. to lower the price
1. 毎日勉強します
2. 特別に勉強してあります
CONNOTATION (CONNOTATIVE MEANING): additional meaning(s) of a lexical item, usually by culture-
mediated association (and thus difficult to detect). Metaphors and metonymies are also situated here.
Consider the following examples. Provide literal and decoded meanings of components and whole phrases.
釘の頭 パンの耳 鍋の手 記者の卵 涙の雨 交渉の厚い壁
猫の額 雀の涙 火の車 目玉商品 人間の屑 傀儡（かいらい）政権 お袋の味
COLLOCATIONS (COLLOCATIVE MEANING): frequently occurring combinations of two or more lexical items

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写真を撮る、 帽子
ぼ う し
をかぶる、 恋に落ちる
Some collocations are IDIOMS （慣用句）and should be identified as such (and not translated literally)
油
あぶら
を売る [lit. to sell cooking oil] ‘to do nothing, to kill time’
焼餅
やきもち
を焼
や
く [lit. to bake mochi cakes] ‘to be jealous’
社長の椅子
い す
を狙
ねら
う [lit. ‘to target the president’s chair] ‘to aim to become the president’
Semantic field analysis is a useful strategy to decode / detect differences in meanings (nuances) within a
group of lexical items (synonyms)
How are these words different?
WIFE 妻
つま
、 女房
にょうぼう
、 家内
か な い
、
HUSBAND 夫～～主人～～連れ合い～～亭主～～内の人～～宿六
What is the semantic concept behind the compounds with 坊 ぼう below?
朝寝坊、 甘えん坊、 けちん坊、忘れん坊、暴れん坊 ＝ あばれんぼ、食いしん坊、黒ん坊、見栄坊 （みえぼう）、風来
坊 （ふうらいぼう）

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WORD FORMATION (and de-compounding in semantic decoding)
This strategy involves assigning additional meanings conveyed by affixed constituents.
血
ち
まみれ 留守
る す
がち 読みあさる 溺
おぼ
れそこなう
PROPER NOUNS
It is essential to recognize proper nouns (anthroponyms, toponyms, company names, product names etc.). In
most cases, there is no orthographic indication of such words in Japanese.
[proper names are dealt in detail in Part 2]
CULTURE SPECIFIC ITEMS (CSI) and CULTURE-SPECIFIC EXPRESSIONS (CSE)
These need to be decoded for reading, meaning, possible associations and target language/culture equivalents.
There is a number of dictionaries with established translations of such terminology but additional explanations
may be required.
節分 お彼岸 建国記念日
七福神 観音 招き猫
絵馬 魔除け 破魔矢
無礼講 粋 心中 派手 地味

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FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE – examples and practice4
Idioms 慣用句
4
For more idioms and other elements of figurative language see Appendix
Fill in the gaps Provide literal meanings/ Decoded meaning Approximate equivalent in English
1. 白い＿＿＿で見る
2. 雀
すずめ
の＿＿＿＿＿
3. 竹馬
ち く ば
の＿＿＿＿
4. 石の上にも＿＿＿＿
5. ＿＿＿＿＿の一声
ひ と こ え
6. ＿＿＿＿＿＿を洗う
7. 親の＿＿＿をかじる
8. 寝耳
ね み み
に＿＿＿＿＿＿
9. ＿＿＿＿＿を投げる

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Mimetic Expressions 擬声語 擬態語
10. ＿＿＿＿＿＿に出る
ものはいない
Lexeme Basic meaning(s) Structure (example), typical
collocations
Decoded meaning(s)
Examples of use
あっさり
うっかり
めそめそ
わくわく
ねばねば
ざらざら
じめじめ
ぐっすり
のんびり

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べたべた
ぼんやり
にこにこ
だらだら
ぺこぺこ
ばらばら
くっきり
つるつる

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Idiomatic kanji compounds 四字熟語
Form Reading Literal meaning
(or componential analysis)
Extended meaning; connotation
Examples of use and English equivalent(s)
以心伝心
異口同音
一石二鳥
単刀直入
喜怒哀楽
疑心暗鬼
十人十色

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言語道断
千差万別
二束三文
無我夢中
一期一会
起承転結

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Classical sayings 故事成句5
Task: Find the following information for each compound. Try to remember the NARRATIVE behind some sayings (preferably in Japanese).
Form Reading Literal meaning
(or componential analysis)
Extended meaning; connotation
Examples of use and English equivalent(s)
五十歩百歩
四面楚歌
矛盾
呉越同舟
塞翁が馬
5
Note that some 故事成句 are classified as 四字熟語 in Japanese dictionaries and other resources

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杞憂
朝三暮四
五里霧中
漁夫の利
守株（株を守る）
蛇足
羊頭狗肉

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Iroha karuta いろはかるた
Sample expression Literal meaning Decoded meaning Equivalent/Paraphrase
ほ 骨折
ほ ね お
り損
ぞん
のくたびれ儲
もう
け
る 瑠璃
る り
も波璃
は り
も照
て
らせば光
ひか
る
れ 良薬
りょうやく
は口ににがし
う 嘘
うそ
からでた真
まこと
お 鬼
おに
に金棒
かなぼう
あ 頭
あたま
かくして尻
しり
かくする
め 目の上の瘤
こぶ
し 知らぬが 仏
ほとけ

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PRAGMATIC DECODING
Pragmatic decoding allows capturing the communicative value of speech acts and utterances and is based
on adequate comprehension of a range of linguistic, cultural and societal layers as well as, in some cases, the
extra-linguistic context.
Your Turn
Identify the pragmatic values of the utterances below. You may use the terms like locutionary / illocutionary /
perlocutionary [speech] act. Try to create a narrative explaining the context of the utterance (including the
presupposed participants, agents and patients, and the spacio-temporal dimension).
Grammatical representation: 来るな。 近づいてはならない。 入るべからず。
Grammatical-lexical representation: 食べちゃだめ。
す 粋
すい
は身
み
を食
く
う
京
京
きょう
の夢大阪の夢

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Lexical representation: 通行禁止、 天地無用 土足厳禁
１ 火曜日だっけ。今度の会は。
２．暇な時寄りたまえ。
３．泣くんじゃない。
４．あの人は結婚するんだって。
５．親の言うことは聞くものだ。
６．子供に出来るものか。
７．子供の時よくあの川で泳いだものだ。
８．晴れますように。
９．もう起きたら？
１０．買ってちょうだい。
１１．食後に服用すること。
１２．もう何も言うまい。
１３．誰にも分かりっこない。

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１４．彼が犯人だとは。
１５．どいた、どいた。
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
More high Frequency IDIOMS
Decode the following idiomatic expressions and provide English equivalents.
Try to visualize the expressions in grey boxes to grasp the figurative sense.
1. 奥歯
お く ば
に物
もの
が挟
はさ
まったような言い方
2. 木
き
で鼻
はな
をくくったような態度
3. 竹
たけ
を割
わ
ったような性格
4. 目を皿のようにして探す
5. のどから手が出るほどほしい

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6. 猫
ねこ
の額
がく
ほどの庭
7. 家計は火
ひ
の 車
くるま
だ
8. 雀の涙ほどの給料
9. しらみ潰
つぶ
しに探す
10. 温室育
おんしつそだ
ちのお嬢さん
11. 彼はいつもカラスの 行 水
ぎょうずい
だ
12. とんぼ返りで帰った
13. 返事はなしのつぶてだった
14. 病院をたらい回しにされた
15. 鶴
つる
の一声
ひとこえ
で騒ぎがおさまった
16. 一家の大 黒 柱
だいこくばしら

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17. 下
した
へも置
お
かぬもてなし
18. うだつがあがらない人
19. 敷居
し き い
が高
たか
くて入
は
れない
20. けんもほろろの対応
21. つじつまが合わない話
22. 道草
みちくさ
を食
く
って叱られる
23. 一旦
いったん
決めたらてこでも動かない人だ

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High frequency newspaper idioms
Are there any differences between this list and the list below (High frequency literary idioms).?
Discuss your discoveries in class.
Rank Romanized version Japanese Decoded meanings / Examples of use
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
kidō ni noru
hakusha o kakeru
te o dasu
te o utsu
te o nuku
tōkaku o arawasu
mi o musubu
akaji ni naru
urame ni deru
te ga todoku
ihyō o tsuku
kubi o hineru
mizu o sasu
軌道に乗る
拍車をかける
手を出す
手を打つ
手を抜く
頭角を現す
実を結ぶ
赤字になる
裏目に出る
手が届く
意表をつく
首をひねる
水を差す

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14
15
16.
17
18
19
20
iki o hikitoru
kimo ni mejiru
tohō ni kureru
kuchibi o kiru
hongoshi o ireru
kata o naraberu
yakume o hatasu
息をひきとる
肝に銘じる
途方に暮れる
口火を切る
本腰を入れる
肩を並べる
役目を果たす
High frequency literary text idioms
Rank Romanized version Japanese Decoded meanings / Examples of use
1
2
3
4
5
6
te o dasu
mayu o hisomeru
tohō ni kureru
kubi o hineru
haji o kaku
uchōten ni naru
手を出す
眉をひそめる
途方に暮れる
首をひねる
恥をかく
有頂天になる

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7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
iki o hikitoru
chōshi o awaseru
te o utsu
aizuchi o utsu
kubi ni naru
fui o utsu
kaoiro o ukagau
ki ga hikeru
ōme ni miru
te ga todoku
shita o maku
fu ni ochinai
kata o motsu
ki ga kiku
息をひきとる
調子を合わせる
手を打つ
相槌を打つ
首になる
不意を打つ
顔色をうかがう
気がひける
大目に見る
手が届く
舌を巻く
腑に落ちない
肩を持つ
気がきく