1. Rare-
Rare-Earth Industry Overview and
Defense Applications
By James B. Hedrick
U.S. Geological Survey - Retired
Hedrick Consultants Inc., Burke, Virginia
2010 SME Annual Meeting and Exhibit
1 March 2010
U.S. Department of the Interior
U.S. Geological Survey

2. Rare Earths Defined
 The rare earths are not rare, nor are they earths
 Rare earths are a group of 17 elements
comprising scandium, yttrium, and the
lanthanides
 The lanthanides are a group of 15 elements:
lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium,
p y y
promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium,
terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium,
ytterbium, and lutetium
 The rare-earth elements are abbreviated “REE”
rare-

3. Periodic Table
Source: Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev

4. REE Mineral Reserves
88 million metric tons of contained rare-earth oxide (REO)
Australia
CIS 6 0%
6.0%
21.8%
Malaysia China
<1% 30.9%
Others
25.2%
United States
India 14.9%
1.3%

5. REE World Mineral Production in 2008
124,000 metric tons of contained rare-earth oxide (REO)
China
97.0%
India
2.2%
Malaysia
0.3% Brazil
0.5%
0 5%

6. Rare Earth Ores
 Bastnäsite-
Bastnäsite-(Ce) (Ce, La, Nd, Pr)(CO3)F
 Monazite-
Monazite-(Ce) (Ce, La, Nd, Th)PO4
 Xenotime-
Xenotime-(Y) YPO4
 Loparite-
Loparite-(Ce) (Ce, Na, Ca)(Ti, Nb)O3
 Ion adsorption type (IAT) REE ions adsorbed on
clay-
clay- formed from lateritic weathering
y g
 Ion adsorption clay Y-rich
Y-
 Ion adsorption clay La, Nd-rich
Nd-

7. Principal Rare-Earth Deposits
Rare-
 Bastnäsite
 Mountain Pass, CA, USA
 Bayan Obo, Inner Mongolia, China
 Mianning, Sichuan Province, China
 Weishan Lake, Shandong Province, China
 Monazite
 Kerala State, Tamil Nadu State, and Orissa State, India
 Lateritic ion-adsorption clay
ion-
 Xunwu, Jiangxi Province, China
 Longnan,
Longnan Jiangxi Province, China
Province
 Loparite
 Lovozero, Kola Peninsula, Russia

8. Bastnäsite
Mountain Pass, CA
Pass
Weight Percent of Total Recovered REE:
Bastnäsite (Mountain Pass, CA)
Pr
Sm
Gd
Ce
Nd
Tb
Eu Ho
Lu
Yb
Tm
Y Er
La
Dy
Source: Johnson, G.W. and Sisneros, T.E., 1981.

9. Monazite
Australia
Weight Percent of Total Recovered REE:
Monazite (Australian)
Sm Y
Dy
Gd
Pr
Nd Tb
Eu
Ce Ho
La Er
Tm
Lu
Yb
Source: Westralian Sands, Ltd., 1979.

10. Loparite
Russia
Weight Percent of Total Recovered REE:
Loparite (Russia)
Pr
Sm
Y
Gd
Nd
Eu
Ce Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
La Lu
Dy
Source: Hedrick, J.B., Sinha, S.P., and Kosynkin, V. D. 1997

11. Xenotime
Malaysia
y
Weight Percent Of Total Recovered REE:
Xenotim e (Malaysian)
Dy La
Ce
Pr
Sm
Nd
Gd
Y Tb
Eu
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Source: Johnson, G.W. and Sisneros, T.E., 1981.

12. IAT Ore – yttrium rich
Longnan,
Longnan Jiangxi Province, China
Province
Weight Percent of Total Recovered REE:
Longnan Lateritic Ore (China)
Dy La
Ce
Pr
Sm
Nd
Gd
Tb
Y Eu
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Source: Introduction to Jiangxi rare earths and applied products, 1985
(Jiangxi Province brochure).

13. IAT Ore – Nd and La rich
Xunwu,
Xunwu, Jiangxi Province, China
Province
Weight Percent of Total Recovered REE:
Xunw u Lateritic Ore (China)
Nd
Gd
Tb
Sm Eu
Ho
Pr Er
Tm
Y Yb
Ce
Lu
Dy
D
La
Source: Introduction to Jiangxi rare earths and applied products, 1985
(Jiangxi Province brochure).

14. Rare Earth World Production and U.S.
Imports
140,000
120,000
Metric tons of REO
100,000
R
80,000
60,000
M
40,000
20,000
0
1953 1958 1963 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2008
World production U.S. imports

15. Mineral Processing
Credit: Molycorp, Inc.

17. Beneficiation of Bastnäsite
Source: Molycorp, Inc., compiled by J.B. Hedrick and G.B. Haxel

18. Solvent Extraction (SX) Processing
 Immiscible solutions of an organic solvent and aqueous raffinate are mixed
mechanically and then allowed to separate enriching the solvent in a particular rare
separate,
earth.
 The longer the solutions are mixed and allowed to separate, the higher the purity.
Source: Molycorp, Inc., compiled by: J.B. Hedrick and G.B. Haxel

19. Beneficiation of Placer Monazite
Wet and Dry Mill (Generalized)
Source: Molycorp, Inc., compiled by: J.B. Hedrick and G.B. Haxel

20. Defense Applications

21. Samarium-
Samarium-cobalt magnets in motors for
flight
fli h control surfaces
l f
 AIM-9X
AIM- Sidewinder  AIM-120
AIM- AMRAAM
 AIM-54
AIM- Phoenix
Credit: U.S. Department of Defense

22. AIM-
AIM-120 AMRAAM Missile
 Sm-
Sm-Co magnets used by mid-fuselage fins
mid-
 Improved Electronic Counter Counter Measures (ECCM) with
jamming detection an upgraded seeker and a longer range – rare
detection, seeker,
earths in ECCM

23. BGM-
BGM-109D Tomahawk Cruise Missile
Tail control fins use direct drive RE magnet actuators
Credit: Raytheon Corporation

24. Smart Bombs—Joint Direct Attack
Bombs—
Munitions (JDAM)
 Nd-Fe-
Nd-Fe-B magnets control fins of gravity guided bombs
linked to a GPS system
 Magnets for JDAM
made in China

25. Nd:YAG Laser
Designator-
Designator-Rangefinder Laser Targeting System
on Abrams M1A1 Tank
Credit: Engineered Support Systems, Inc. and U.S. Army

26. F-15 With Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia
Yttria-
Coating in hot section of engine to protect metal alloy
Credit: Wolfgang Bredow

27. F-117 Avionics with REE Phosphors

28. Sonar Transducers for Submarines
 Terfenol-
Terfenol-D® Tb-Fe-Ni alloy with Dy - magnetostrictive alloy
Tb-Fe-
 Magnetic domains in the crystal rotate when a magnetic field
is applied which creates a sonar ping
ping.
Credit: General Dynamics Corporation — Electric Boat

29. Radar Surveillance
 Rare-
Rare-earth magnet
waveguides in travelling
wave tubes ( (TWT) and
)
klystrons
 Yttrium iron garnet (YIG)
g ( )
and yttrium gadolinium
garnet (YGG) in phase
shifters, tuners, and filters
, ,
 Rare earths are used in
pulsed and continuous
wave radar, satellite
radar
communication
Credit: Raytheon Corporation

30. Electronic Warfare
 Electronic Intelligence (ELINT)
 Electronic Countermeasures (ECM)
 Support Jamming
 Self-
Self-Protect Jamming
 Electronic Surveillance Measures (ESM)
El t i S ill M
 Both ESM and ECM use Yttrium Iron Garnets (YIG)
and Yttrium Gadolinium Garnets (YGG)

31. Ferrite-
Ferrite-Enabled Defense Systems
Yttrium iron ga et (YIG) – Yttrium gado u garnet (YGG)
tt u o garnet ( G) tt u gadolinium ga et ( GG)
• Phased-Array Radars—Patriot, Aegis, B-1B, Joint
STARS, SPQ 9B
STARS SPQ-9B
• Communication Satellites—DSCS III, MILSTAR,
Advanced EHF, Classified
• Communication Systems
• F-22 Intra-Flight Data Link, Dark Star and newer UAV
g
Data Links
• Potential JSF, UCAV, etc.
• ECM S t
Systems
• ALQ-172 (B-52, AC-130), ALQ-178 (F-16)
• ALQ-211 (AH-64D MH-47, MH-60, CV-22)
(AH-64D, MH-47 MH-60

32. PATRIOT Phased-Array TRacking to
Intercept Of Target solid state phased array radar
YIG and YGG used in toroids and RF (radio
frequency) circulators
Credit: Raytheon Corporation

33. BMEWS Ballistic Missile Early
Warning System solid state phased array radar
Credit: Raytheon Corporation and U.S. Air Force

34. REE Production Trends
Monazite-
Monazite-placer │ Mountain Pass │ Chinese era →?
era era
Source: USGS Fact Sheet 087-02 updated with recent USGS Minerals Yearbook

35. Rare Earth Imports
Principal sources by weight in 2008

36. Tensile Strength (ksi = 1,000 pounds/square inch)
Al, Sc-Al,
Al Sc-Al and Ti Alloys
200 190
180 164
160 146
145
140
120
100
100 90 91 91.5 92 96
83
80 70
64 66 69
60 50
40
20
0
Al 6013-T8 Al 2024 Al 7046 Al 7075
Al 7475 Al 7050 Al 7055 Sc500
Sc777 Al C555 Sc ScXS Gen1X Sc
Ti-6Al-4V Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo Ti-15V-3Cr-3Al-3Sn Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al
Source: Company alloy data, ASTM, MatWeb Material Property Data

37. Density (g/cm ) 3
Al, Sc-Al,
Al Sc-Al and Ti Alloys
4.54
5.00
4.65
4.42
4.17
4.50
4.00
3.50 2.85
2.85
2.85
2.85
2.85
2.85
2.85
2.85
2.80
2.80
2.77
2.71
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0 00
Al 6013-T8 Al 2024 Al 7046 Al 7075
Al 7475 Al 7050 Al 7055 Sc500
Sc777 Al C555 Sc ScXS Gen1X Sc
Ti-6Al-4V Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo Ti-15V-3Cr-3Al-3Sn Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al
Source: Company alloy data, ASTM, MatWeb Material Property Data

38. Density
y
Al, Ti, Steel, and Sc-Al Alloys
Sc-
8.00
8 00
Aluminum 5083
7.00 Titanium-6Al-4V 7.86
6.00 Rolled Homogeneous Steel
Al-0.07Sc
00 S
5.00
4.00
3.00 4.50
2.00
2.70 2.702
1.00
1 00
0.00
grams/cubic centimeter
Source: Company alloy data, ASTM, MatWeb Material Property Data

39. Price Comparison at yearend 2009
Stainless Steel Aluminum Titanium alloy and Sc-Al alloys
Steel, Aluminum, alloy, Sc-
$80.00 $74.00 304 Stainless Steel
$70.00 Al (Ingot)
$60.00
Ti (6Al-4V)
$50.00
$50 00
Sc-Al (Al 98% - Sc
$40.00
2%) master alloy
$
$30.00 $19.29
$19 29 Sc-Al (Al 99.98% -
(
.02% Sc)
$20.00
$10.00 $0.64 $2.18 $3.67
$0.00
Dollars per kilogram
Source: American Metal Market, London Metal Exchange, and Stanford Materials

40. Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) –
Predator d th R
P d t and the Reaper
MQ-
MQ-1B Predator
MQ-
MQ-9 Reaper
Credit: U.S. Air Force

41. UAV – Multi-Spectral Targeting System
Multi-
AN/AAS-
AN/AAS-52 by Raytheon has rare earths in:
• Infrared and CCDTV sensors - focal plane arrays
(FPA) polished with cerium oxide
• Nd-YAG laser rangefinder, designator, and illuminator
Nd-
• Optional laser spot tracker sensor with FPA and
integrated circuits polished with cerium oxide and
yttrium-
yttrium-containing ferrite electronics
• Lenses are polished with cerium oxide
Credit: U.S. Air Force

42. Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP)
also known as Chemical Mechanical Planarization
 Cerium oxide is used
in polishing:
 Semiconductors –
Logic and Memory
Storage
 Dielectrics
 STI or Shallow
Trench Isolation -
Transistors
Credit: Alpsitec

43. Focal Plane Arrays (FPA) HgCdTe or
InSb polished with cerium oxide
Credit: International Society for Optics and Photonics (SPIE) and Raytheon Corporation

44. CMP – Chemical Mechanical
Polishing E i
P li hi Equipmentt
 Silicon wafer polishing equipment
 Cerium oxide polishing slurries
Credit: Alpsitec and Speedfam Inc.

45. Future designs with rare earths
F-35 Joint Strike Fighter design
 F-35A (CTOL) / F-35B (STOVL) / F-35C (CV)
F- F-
SM- Stalma™
SM-36 Stalma™ design
 Short Take-off Advanced Light Multi-role Attack Jet
Take- Multi-
 Designed to replace F-16
F-
 11% Sc-Al in frame decreases frame weight while
Sc-
maintaining strength allowing shorter take off.
 Sc-
Sc-Al in internal wing, canard and empennage
internal structure, fuselage geodetic substructure,
air intake ducts, and landing gear structure.
 Planned for 2020-2025 multi-role fighter market.
2020- multi-
Credit: Stavatti Aerospace and Lockheed Martin

46. Rare Earths Are Used in Defense
Every Second…24/7
Credit: U.S. Air Force