1. CHAPTER 4
LEADERSHIP

2. TMU Syllabus
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Objectives
Leadership Qualities
Characteristics of Leadership
Techniques of Leadership – Styles / Types
Theories of Leadership
Co-ordination
Motivation
Theories of Motivation

3. Leadership – Key Points
» Leadership in Simple Terms
» Leader Characteristics
» Qualities of Leadership
» Leadership as Empowerment
» The Leadership Role
» The Ingredients of a Successful Leader
» What is Successful Leadership
» The Lombardi Leadership Model (2001)

4. Leadership begins with
Self-knowledge
“Self-knowledge is the basis for character...
Character is the root of integrity...
Integrity provides the foundation for leadership”.
(Lombardi, 2001)
What do you know about yourself as a leader?

5. Leadership in Simple Terms
» Understand the vision
» Direct and enable others to cooperate in achieving it
“Leadership is the ability to direct
people,
more important, to have those people
accept that direction”.
(Lombardi, 2001)

6. Leadership is about:
» Motivating
» Inspiring
» Taking people to greater heights
» Working with participants on the how and helping them figure
out the what and why
» Encouraging them to push themselves to achieve the highest
possible performance
» Action
» Enabling, not telling
» Talking the talk and walking the walk...walking alongside

7. “Leadership that pulls together people with diverse
talents, backgrounds, experiences and interests, encourages
them to step up to responsibility and continued
achievement, and treats them as full scale partners and
contributors.
Leadership is not about memorising techniques or devising the
perfect game plan. It is about really paying attention to people –
really believing them, really caring about them, really involving
them.”
(Peters & Austin, 1985)
How would you define leadership?

8. Leader Characteristics include:
» Ability
» Knowledge
» Experience
» Personality
What characteristics of leadership do you have?

9. Qualities of Leadership
» Leadership qualities are demonstrated in a leader‟s
behaviour, not their position.
“Leadership is not just one quality but rather a blend
of qualities”.

10. Leadership Qualities
» Enable direction and structure
by the group
» A clear vision
» Charisma
» Enable motivation and enthusiasm
» Vision and passion
» Strong communicating skills
» Role model
» Have integrity and honesty
» Be organised
» Make a difference
» People-oriented skills
» Skilful communicator
» Build character
» Empathy
(
What leadership
qualities do you have?

11. Leadership as Empowerment
“A good leader inspires people to have confidence
in their leader.
A great leader inspires people to have confidence
in themselves”.
(Anonymous)

12. Leadership as Empowerment
Current ideas on leadership involve empowering followers to
self-lead.
This is important in a coach-leadership role as empowering
athletes enables them to make their own decisions and self-lead
during performance.
“The best leaders - people do not even notice their existence.
The next best - people honour and praise.
The next the people fear.
The next the people hate.
When the best leader‟s work is done the people say „we did it ourselves‟.”

13. Leaders Build Leadership
To build leadership the leader has to enable
participant independence so they can perform
with freedom and autonomy to make informed
decisions without the leader around.
(Hinkson, 2001)

14. The Leadership Role
A good leader is a person who:
» Is a good teacher
» Doesn‟t put down those they are working with
» Gets the most from those they are working with
» Works within the framework of the rules
“A leader is one who knows the way, goes the way, and shows the
way.”
John C. Maxwell

15. The Ingredients of a Successful Leader
» Create and practise values
» Develop committed followers
» Inspire lofty accomplishments
» Model appropriate behaviour
» Focus attention on important issues
» Connect the group to the outside world
What other ingredients are important to be
a successful leader?

16. What is Successful Leadership?
Successful leaders get the most out of the participants
and enable them to learn:
» How to lead and follow within the team
» How to make good decisions
» Not to be afraid to fail
» Character values
» How to be successful leaders and people
» To be the best they can be

17. The Lombardi Leadership Model (2001)
Character
Belief
Habit
Courage
Responsibility
Sacrifice
Hard work
Willpower
Mental Toughness
Discipline
Which of these leadership traits are the hardest for you?

18. Finally...
Leadership is a combination of character
and competence; of who you are and what
you can do.
(Covey, 2004)

19. A Leadership Story:
» A group of workers and their leaders are set a task
of clearing a road through a dense jungle on a remote island to get
to the coast where an estuary provides
a perfect site for a port.
» The leaders organise the labour into efficient units and monitor the
distribution and use of capital assets – progress is excellent. The
leaders continue to monitor and evaluate progress, making
adjustments along the way to ensure the progress is maintained
and efficiency increased wherever possible.
» Then, one day amidst all the hustle and bustle and activity, one
person climbs up a nearby tree. The person surveys the scene
from the top of the tree.

20. A Leadership Story:
» And shouts down to the assembled group below…
» “Wrong Way!”
» (Story adapted from Stephen Covey (2004) “The Seven Habits of Highly Effective
People” Simon & Schuster).
» “Management is doing things right, leadership is doing
the right things”
(Warren Bennis and Peter Drucker)

21. Leadership

22. Types of Leadership Style
Creative & Institutional

23. Types of Leadership Style
» Autocratic:
• Leader makes decisions without reference to anyone
else
• High degree of dependency on the leader
• Can create de-motivation and alienation
of staff
• May be valuable in some types of business where
decisions need to be made quickly and decisively

24. Types of Leadership Style
» Democratic:
» Encourages decision making
from different perspectives – leadership may be
emphasised throughout
the organisation
• Consultative: process of consultation before
decisions are taken
• Persuasive: Leader takes decision and seeks to
persuade others that the decision
is correct

25. Types of Leadership Style
» Democratic:
•May help motivation and involvement
•Workers feel ownership of the firm and
its ideas
•Improves the sharing of ideas
and experiences within the business
•Can delay decision making

26. Types of Leadership Style
» Laissez-Faire:
• „Let it be‟ – the leadership responsibilities
are shared by all
• Can be very useful in businesses
where creative ideas are important
• Can be highly motivational,
as people have control over their working life
• Can make coordination and decision making
time-consuming and lacking in overall direction
• Relies on good team work
• Relies on good interpersonal relations

27. Types of Leadership Style
» Paternalistic:
» Leader acts as a „father figure‟
» Paternalistic leader makes decision but may
consult
» Believes in the need to support staff

28. Theories of Leadership

29. Theories of Leadership
» Trait theories:
» Is there a set of characteristics
that determine a good leader?
• Personality?
• Dominance and personal presence?
• Charisma?
• Self confidence?
• Achievement?
• Ability to formulate a clear vision?

30. Theories of Leadership
» Trait theories:
• Are such characteristics
inherently gender biased?
• Do such characteristics
produce good leaders?
• Is leadership more than
just bringing about change?
• Does this imply that leaders are born not
bred?

31. Theories of Leadership
» Behavioural:
» Imply that leaders can be trained – focus on the
way of doing things
• Structure based behavioural theories – focus on the
leader instituting structures – task orientated
• Relationship based behavioural theories – focus on
the development and maintenance of relationships –
process orientated

32. Theories of Leadership
» Contingency Theories: Situational Approach
» Leadership as being more flexible – different
leadership styles used at different times depending
on the circumstance.
» Suggests leadership is not a fixed series of
characteristics that can be transposed into different
contexts

33. Theories of Leadership
» May depend on:
• Type of staff
• History of the business
• Culture of the business
• Quality of the relationships
• Nature of the changes needed
• Accepted norms within the institution

34. Theories of Leadership
» Transformational:
• Widespread changes
to a business or organisation
» Requires:
• Long term strategic planning
• Clear objectives
• Clear vision
• Leading by example – walk the walk
• Efficiency of systems and processes

35. Theories of Leadership
» Group Approach:
• Success of a leader is primarily influenced by the
characteristics of the particular group
• Group members approve or disapprove of a leader
• Culture, patterns, traditions
• So an individual can become a good leader only if he
adopts the above culture, traditions
• Be a roman in Rome to start with

36. Theories of Leadership
» Transactional Theories:
• Focus on the management
of the organisation
• Focus on procedures and efficiency
• Focus on working to rules
and contracts
• Managing current issues
and problems

37. Factors Affecting Style

38. Factors Affecting Style
» Leadership style may be dependent
on various factors:
• Risk - decision making and change initiatives
based on degree of risk involved
• Type of business – creative business
or supply driven?
• How important change is –
change for change‟s sake?
• Organisational culture – may be long embedded
and difficult to change
• Nature of the task – needing cooperation? Direction?
Structure?

39. Change Leadership

40. Change Leadership
» The most challenging aspect of business is
leading and managing change
» The business environment is subject to fastpaced economic and social change
» Modern business must adapt
and be flexible to survive
» Problems in leading change stem mainly from
human resource management

41. Change Leadership
Self-esteem
2
3
1
5
4
Time
5. Testing out:
4. Acceptance/letting
3. Depression: as reality
2. Minimisation: As thego:
1. Immobilisation
6. Search for meaning:
Individuals begin to
The lowest point in selfbegins to rumours of the
changeas dawn staff may
– becomes
Individuals begin to work
interact with circulate, the
esteem finally and people
feel alienatedthe
clearer, peopleseesto fit in
change try
7
with the change and see
change, they start lack of
starting to with their own
angry, feelings of the ask
the changeaccept atosome
individual feels
how they might be able to
questions Fear
inevitable.to seeofand may
control of events overtake
personal positionhow they
sense of shock and
the
make the change work for
might is a feature of
future believe that it this
peoplework they feel will
try topossible disbelief –
and with the
them – self esteem begins
change.
stage. much so
depressed as they try to
not affect them. that they
so
to rise.
reconcile what is
deem it worthy of
happening with their own
doing nothing.
7. Internalisation:
personal situation.
the change is
6
understood and
adopted within the
individual’s own
understanding – they
now know how to
work with it and feel a
renewed sense of
confidence and self
esteem.

42. Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal.
Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries

43. Motivation and Performance
Environment
Motivation
Effort
Ability
Performance

44. 3 Major Types of Motivation Theories
» Content Theories of Motivation
• WHAT motivates us
» Process Theories of Motivation
• WHY and HOW motivation occurs
» Reinforcement Theory
• HOW outcomes influence behaviors

45. Content Perspectives on Motivation
» Content Perspectives
• Approaches to motivation that try to answer the question,
“What factors in the workplace motivate people?”
» Content Perspectives of Motivation
• Maslow‟s Hierarchy of Needs
• Aldefer‟s ERG Theory
• McGregory‟s Theory X and Theory Y
• Herzberg‟s Two-Factor Theory
• McClelland‟s Achievement,
Power, and Affiliation Needs

46. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
NEEDS
General Examples
Organizational Examples
SelfAchievement actualization
Status
Friendship
Stability
Food
Esteem
Belongingness
Security
Physiology
Challenging job
Job
title
Friends
at work
Pension
plan
Base
salary

47. Assumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy
Movement up the Pyramid
•Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until
all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.
•Individuals
therefore must
move up the
hierarchy in order
Maslow Application:
A homeless person
will not be motivated to
meditate!

48. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
A Content Perspective
» What factor or factors motivate people
» Weakness of Theory
• Five levels of need are not always present
• Order is not always the same
• Cultural differences
» Need‟s Hierarchy in China…an example:
• Belonging
• Physiological
• Safety
• Self actualizing in service to society

49. Alderfer’s ERG Theory
A Content Perspective
» Existence needs
• Physiological
» Relatedness needs
• How one individual relates to his/her social environment
» Growth needs
• Achievement and self actualization

50. Alderfer’s ERG Theory
A Content Perspective
Satisfaction-Progression
Frustration-Regression
Growth Needs
Relatedness
Needs
Existence Needs

51. Content Theories
» McGregor‟s Theory X and Theory Y
• Theory X
» Assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, avoid
responsibility, and require close supervision.
• Theory Y
» Assumes that workers can exercise self-direction, desire
responsibility, and like to work.
• Motivation is maximized by participative decision making,
interesting jobs, and good group relations.

52. Content Theories
» Herzberg‟s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
• Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by
different factors.
»Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors
that create job dissatisfaction.
»Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that
create job satisfaction.
• Attempted to explain why job satisfaction does not
result in increased performance.
»The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction,
but rather no satisfaction.

53. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

54. Contrasting Views of SatisfactionDissatisfaction

55. McClelland’s Needs Theory
» Three-Needs Theory
• There are three major acquired needs that are major
motives in work.
• Need for achievement (nAch)
» The drive to excel and succeed
• Need for power (nPow)
» The need to influence the behavior of others
• Need of affiliation (nAff)
» The desire for interpersonal relationships

56. Process Perspectives of Motivation
» Why people choose certain behavioral options to satisfy
their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after
they have attained their goals.
» Process perspectives of Motivation
• Goal Setting Theory
• Equity Theory
• Expectancy Theory

57. Goal-Setting Theory-- A Process Perspective
Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with
self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.
» Difficulty
• Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.
» Specificity
• Clarity and precision of the goal.
Goal Achievement Depends on:
» Acceptance
• Extent to which persons accept a goal as their own.
» Commitment
• Extent to which an individual is personally interested in reaching a
goal.

58. Equity Theory: A Process Perspective
» Individuals equate value of rewards to effort and
compare it to other people.
outcomes(self)
inputs (self)
Equity
Inputs/Outcomes
Comparison of
self with others
Inequity
=
outcomes (other)
inputs (other)
Motivation to maintain
current situation
Ways to reduce inequity
• Change inputs
• Change outcomes
• Alter perceptions of self
• Alter perceptions of other
• Leave situation
• Change comparisons

59. Justice and Equity Theory

60. Three types of Justice
Distributive Justice
Procedural Justice
Perceived fairness of the
outcome (the final
distribution).
The perceived fairness of
the process used to
determine the outcome
(the final distribution).
“Who got what?”
“How was who gets what
decided?”
Interactional Justice
The degree to which one
is treated with dignity
and respect.
“Was I treated well?”

61. Expectancy Theory --The Basic Idea
» People tend to prefer certain goals, or outcomes, over
others.
» They anticipate experiencing feelings of satisfaction
should such a preferred outcome be achieved.
» Basically, people are motivated to behave in ways that
produce valued outcomes.

62. Expectancy Theory A Process Perspective
» Motivation depends on how much we want
something and how likely we are to get it
• Elements
»Effort to Performance Expectancy (E) is the probability
that effort will lead to performance.
»Performance to Outcome Expectancy (I) is the
perception that performance leads to an outcome.
»Outcome is the consequence or reward for
performance.
»Valence (V) is how much a particular outcome is
valued.

63. Expectancy Theory A Process Perspective
M=ExIxV
» For motivated behavior to occur:
• Effort-to-performance must be greater than 0
• Performance-to-outcome must be greater than 0
• Sum of valences must be greater than 0*
* One or more valences may be negative!

64. The Expectancy Model of Motivation
Outcome
Outcome
Environment
Motivation
Effort
Ability
Performance
Valence
Valence
Outcome
Valence
Outcome
Valence
Outcome
Valence

66. A General Model of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Outcome 1
Performance
Goal
High Effort
Expectancy
“What are my chances
of reaching my
performance goal
if I work hard?”
Decision to
Exert Effort
Expectancy
“What are my chances
of reaching my
performance goal
if I slack off?”
Outcome 2
Outcome 3
Instrumentality
“What are my chances
of getting various
outcomes if I achieve
my performance goal?”
Valence
“How much do I value
these outcomes?”
Outcome 1
Low Effort
Performance
Goal
Outcome 2
Outcome 3

67. Reinforcement Theory
Argues that behavior is a function of its
consequences.
Assumptions:
•Behavior is environmentally caused.
•Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by
providing (controlling) consequences.
•Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

68. Motivation: From
Concepts to
Applications

69. Job Design Theory
Job Characteristics
Model
Identifies five job
characteristics and their
relationship to personal
and work outcomes.
Characteristics:
1. Skill variety
2. Task identity
3. Task significance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback

70. Job Design Theory (cont’d)
» Job Characteristics Model
• Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given,
directly affect three psychological states of employees:
»Knowledge of results
»Meaningfulness of work
»Personal feelings of responsibility for results
• Increases in these psychological states result in
increased motivation, performance, and job satisfaction.

71. The Job Characteristics Model
Source: J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham, Work Design (excerpted from pp. 78–80). © 1980 by
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc.

72. Job Design Theory (cont’d)
Skill Variety
The degree to which a job requires a variety of
different activities (how may different skills are
used in a given day, week, month?).
Task Identity
The degree to which the job requires completion of
a whole and identifiable piece of work (from
beginning to end).
Task Significance
The degree to which the job has a substantial
impact on the lives or work of other people.

73. Job Design Theory (cont’d)
Autonomy
The degree to which the job provides substantial
freedom and discretion to the individual in
scheduling the work and in determining the
procedures to be used in carrying it out.
Feedback
The degree to which carrying out the work activities
required by a job results in the individual obtaining
direct and clear information about the effectiveness
of his or her performance.

74. Examples of High and Low Job Characteristics
Characteristics
Examples
Skill Variety
• High variety
The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines,
does body work, and interacts with customers
• Low variety
A bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day
Task Identity
• High identity
A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds the
object, and finishes it to perfection
• Low identity
A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe to make table legs
Task Significance
• High significance Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit
• Low significance Sweeping hospital floors
Autonomy
• High autonomy
A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, and
decides on the best techniques for a particular installation
• Low autonomy
A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a
routine, highly specified procedure
Feedback
• High feedback
An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then tests it to
determine if it operates properly
• Low feedback
An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then routes it to a
quality control inspector who tests and adjusts it

75. Computing a Motivating Potential Score
People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are
generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.
Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in
influencing personal and work outcome variables rather
than influencing them directly.