Art1204 the burden of glory & fall to grace art of the high & late roman empire

The Burden Of GLORY
& The Fall to Grace
The Art Of The High & LATE Roman Empire
Art
Appreciation
–
ART1204

Professor
Will
Adams

Pont-‐du-‐Gard,
Nîmes,
France;
19

BCE

The Imperial Age
§  The
Romans
typically

built
aqueducts
to
serve

any
large
city
in
their

empire.

§  The
city
of
Rome
itself,

being
the
largest
city,
had

the
largest
concentration

of
aqueducts,
with
water

being
supplied
by
eleven

aqueducts
constructed

over
a
period
of
500
years.

The Imperial Age
§  There
were

approximately
300
miles

of
aqueducts,
while
only

29
of
them
were
above

ground.

§  The
aqueduct
provided

about
one
hundred

gallons
of
water
a
day

for
the
inhabitants
of

Nîmes
from
a
source

some
thirty
miles
away.

An empire emerges
§  After
his
father’s
death,

Vespasian’s
son,
Titus,
assumes

control
of
the
Empire
in
79
CE,

the
same
year
that
Mt.
Vesuvius

erupts
and
buries
the
cities
of

Pompeii
and
Herculaneum.

§  Despite
the
disaster,
Emperor

Titus
was
known
as
“the
light
of

the
world”
during
his
reign,
in

recognition
of
his
administration

and
completion
of
his
father’s

Coliseum
project.

§  Titus
was
mysteriously
killed
in

81
CE.

Pompeii & Herculaneum
§  Pompeii
&
neighboring

Herculaneum
were

buried
on
August
24
&

August
25,
79
CE
by
the

eruption
of
Mt.

Vesuvius.

§  Pompeii
is
the
most

important

archaeological
site
for

learning
about
life
in
a

Roman
city.

The Imperial Age
Roman
Cities
&
Pompeii

§  The
forum
was
an
oasis
in

the
heart
of
Pompeii
-‐
an

open,
airy
plaza.

§  Throughout
the
rest
of
the

city,
every
square
foot
of

land
was
developed.

§  The
forum
was
constructed

at
the
southern
end
of
the

town,
immediately
after

the
Roman
colony
was

founded
in
80
BCE.

MISCONCEPTIONS
§  Some
misconceptions
about
Pompeii
are:

§ The
victims
were
“buried
alive;”
they
had

no
chance
of
escape.

§ The
city
was
buried
“as
it
was;”
the

victims
were
caught
completely
unaware.

§ Pompeii
was
never
again
explored
since

ancient
times.

REALITIES
§  Some
of
the
realities
about
Pompeii

include:

§ The
eruption
did
not
occur
without

warning;
there
were
many
earthquakes
in

the
week
leading
up
to
the
eruption.

§ Many
people
did
escape;
some
of
those

who
did
not
may
have
been
looters
or

were
simply
unwilling
to
leave.

THE PLASTER MOLDS
§  Despite
these
misconceptions,
no
other

ancient
site
shows
what
an
ancient
city

may
have
been
like
better
than
Pompeii.

§  The
most
striking
example
of
this
is
the

plaster
molds
from
Pompeii.

§  In
1863,
Giuseppe
Fiorelli,
an
Italian

archaeologist,
invented
the
technique
of

the
plaster
molding.

THE PLASTER MOLDS
§  Pompeii
was
buried
under
roughly
70
feet
of

volcanic
ash.

§  Fiorelli
realized
that,
by
pounding
on
the

ground,
he
could
identify
areas
which
were

hollow
below.

§  The
hollow
areas
were
once
ﬁlled
with

remains
-‐
pottery,
bodies,
or
other
items
-‐

that
had
long
since
decomposed,
leaving

negatives.

THE PLASTER MOLDS
§  By
pouring
plaster
into
this
hollow
area,
the

plaster
would
dry
and
take
the
original

shape
of
what
once
laid
there.

§  Archaeologists
could
then
dig
around
the

plaster,
and
take
out
the
positive
model
of

what
was
once
actually
contained
there.

§  The
following
are
some
examples:

The Imperial Age
§  Pompeii’s
new
citizens

erected
a
large
amphitheater.

§  It
is
the
earliest
such

structure
known
and
could

seat
some
twenty
thousand

spectators.

§  The
word
amphitheater

means
“double
theater”,
and

the
Roman
structures
closely

resemble
two
Greek
theaters

put
together,
although
the

Greeks
never
built

amphitheaters.

17Aerial
view
of
the
amphitheater,

Pompeii,
Italy,
c.
80
BCE

The Imperial Age
§  Greek
theaters
were
placed

on
natural
hillsides,
but

supporting
an

amphitheater’s
continuous

elliptical
cavea
required

building
an
artiﬁcial

mountain,
and
only

concrete,
unknown
to
the

Greeks,
was
capable
of
such

a
job.

§  Barrel
vaults
also
form
the

tunnels
leading
to
the
stone

seats
of
the
arena.

DAILY LIFE IN POMPEII
§  The
remains
of
certain
buildings
give
us
a

glimpse
of
what
daily
life
was
like
for
the

people
of
Pompeii.

§  Among
some
of
the
buildings
we
have

remains
of
are
shops,
baths,
and
homes.

§  Even
graﬃti
on
the
walls
still
remains
in

certain
areas
of
Pompeii.

THERMOPOLIUM ( FAST FOOD
RESTAURANT)

ROMAN HOUSES
§  Because
of
its
inhabitants’
wealth,

Pompeii
also
has
some
of
the
most

magniﬁcent
houses
in
Rome’s
history

§  Among
the
more
famous
homes
are:

§ 
The
Villa
of
the
Mysteries

§ 
The
House
of
the
Faun

§ 
The
House
of
the
Vettii

HOUSE TERMS TO
KNOW
§  Fauces:
The
narrow
entryway
from
the
street.

§  Atrium:
The
central
public
room
of
the
house,
just
inside
the

entryway;
it
usually
has
an
impluvium,
or
water
basin
at
its

center.

§  Cubiculum:
The
small,
painted-‐but-‐windowless
bedrooms
&

dressing
rooms
surrounding
the
atrium.

§  Tablinum:
The
homeowners’
oﬃce,
study,
or
greeting
area.

§  Peristyle:
The
open
courtyard
or
garden
surrounded
by
a

colonnade
at
the
back
of
the
house.

§  Triclinium:
The
dining
room,
located
oﬀ
the
peristyle.

§  Lararium:
A
shrine
to
the
Roman
household
gods,
usually

located
in
the
peristyle.

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF THE
HOME
§  Like

the
Greeks,
the
Romans
(and
Italians)
were
big

on
social
hierarchy.

§  The
plans
of
most
of
the
homes
diﬀer
slightly
in
the

layout,
but
inevitably
are
designed
to
enable
the

visitor
to
see
into
the
home.

§  When
the
front
door
was
open
during
the
day,
a

passerby
could
see
directly
into
the
atrium,
then
the

tablinum,
which
lead
directly
into
the
peristyle.

§  The
more
gardens
and
courtyards
you
had,
the

greater
your
wealth
and
status.

ROMAN HOME DECORATION
§  These
houses
also
contain
a
number
of

magniﬁcently
preserved
decorative

elements
in
the
form
of:

§ 
Frescoes:
Wall
paintings
created
by
painting

into
wet
plaster
to
create
a
bonded
image
&

wall.

§ 
Mosaics:
Images
created
from
tiny,
tiny

pieces
of
glass
or
tile
that
are
called

tessurae.

The Imperial Age
§  The
majority
of
homes
in

Pompeii
were
decorated
with

muralistic
wall
paintings.

§  Especially
striking
is
how

some
of
the
ﬁgures
interact

across
the
corners
of
the

room.

§  Nothing
comparable
to
this

existed
in
Hellenistic
Greece.

§  Despite
the
presence
of

Dionysus,
satyrs,
and
other

ﬁgures
from
Greek

mythology,
this
is
a
Roman

design.

Dionysiac

Mystery
Frieze

Pompeii,
Italy,

c.
60-‐50
BCE

FRESCOES FROM THE VILLA
OF THE MYSTERIES

ALEXANDER THE GREAT MOSAIC
FROM THE HOUSE OF THE FAUN

The Imperial Age
§  Originally
formed
part
of
a
Fourth

Style
wall
of
an
exedra,
recessed
area

on
the
opening
of
the
atrium
of
a

Pompeiian
house.

§  Standard
attributes
of
Roman

marriage
portraits
are
displayed
here

with
the
man
holding
a
scroll
and
the

woman
holding
a
stylus
and
a
wax

writing
tablet.

§  These
portraits
suggested
high

education
even
if
it
wasn’t
true
of
the

subjects.

§  The
heads
are
individualized
to
the

subject’s
features,
not
simply

standard
types.

§  This
is
the
equivalent
of
modern

wedding
photographs.

33
Portrait
of
a
Husband
&
Wife;

Pompeii,Italy;
c.
70-‐79
CE

§  Roman
painters’
interest
in

the
likeness
of
individual

people
was
matched
by
their

concern
for
recording
the

appearance
of
everyday

objects.

§  This
still
life
demonstrates

that
Roman
painters
sought

to
create
illusionistic
eﬀects

while
depicting
small
objects.

§  Here
they
used
light
and

shade
with
attention
to

shadows
and
highlights.

Still-‐Life
with
Peaches,
Fresco,

Herculaneum,
Italy;

AD
62-‐79

The Imperial Age

Arch
of
Titus,
Rome,
Italy;
81
CE

The Imperial Age
§  When
Vespasian’s
older
son,

Titus,
died
only
two
years
after

becoming
emperor,
his
younger

brother
Domitian,
took
over.

Domitian
made
this
arch
in

Titus’s
honor
on
the
Sacred

Way
leading
into
the

Republican
Forum
Romanum.

§  This
type
of
arch,
the
so-‐called

triumphal
arch,
has
a
long

history
in
Roman
art
and

architecture,
beginning
in
the

second
century
B.C.
and

continuing
even
into
the
era
of

Christian
Roman
emperors.

The Imperial Age
§  The
Roman
arches

celebrated
more
than
just

military
victories,
as
they

often
commemorated

events
such
as
building

roads
and
bridges.

§  This
arch
commemorates

Titus’
sack
of
Jerusalem

around
70
CE.

§  This
is
the
oldest
arch
of

its
kind.

The
Spoils
of
the
Temple
Relief
depicts
the
triumphal
parade
down
the
Sacred
Way

after
his
return
from
the
conquest
of
Judaea
at
the
end
of
the
Jewish
Wars
in
70
CE.

This
panel
contains
a
depiction
of
the
sacred
seven-‐branched
menorah,
from
the

Temple
of
Jerusalem.

The Imperial Age

The
Triumph
of
Titus
Relief
depicts
the
actual
triumphal
procession
with
the
toga-‐
clad
Titus
in
the
chariot,
but
with
the
addition
of
allegorical
ﬁgures
(the
winged

Victory
riding
in
the
chariot
with
Titus
who
places
a
wreath
on
his
head,
the
goddess

Roma
leading
the
horses).
Because
the
reliefs
were
deeply
carved,
some
of
the

forward
heads
have
broken
oﬀ.

The Imperial Age

Portrait
Bust
of
Hadrian
as
General,

Tel
Shalem,
Israel;
c.
130-‐138
CE

The High Imperial Age
§  Hadrian
was
a
connoisseur

and
lover
of
all
the
arts,
as

well
as
an
author
and

architect.

§  There
are
more
existing

portraits
of
Hadrian
than
of

any
other
emperor,
except

Augustus.

§  Though
he
ruled
Rome
for

more
than
20
years,
he
is

depicted
in
portraits
as
a

mature
adult
who
never

ages.

§  Hadrian’s
portraits
more
closely

resemble
Greek
portraits
of

Pericles
than
those
of
any
Roman

emperor
before
him,
undoubtedly

his
likenesses
were
inspired
by

Classical
Greek
statuary.

§  Hadrian
wore
a
beard,
a
habit

that,
in
its
Roman
context,
must

be
viewed
as
a
Greek
aﬀectation

(an
appearance
or
manner

assumed
or
put
on
as
a
show
or

pretense,
often
to
impress
others).

§  Beards
then
became
the
norm
for

all
subsequent
Roman
emperors

for
more
than
a
century
and
a
half.
Marble
Bust
of
Hadrian
Wearing
Military

Dress

Tivoli,
Italy;
c.
117
-‐
118
CE

Pantheon

Rome,
Italy;
125-‐128
CE

§  With
the
new
Emperor

Hadrian
in
power,
work
on

a
new
temple
dedicated
to

all
the
gods
began.

§  This
temple
became

known
as
the
Pantheon.

§  Excluding
the
use
of
an

eight
Corinthian
column

facade,
the
temple’s

design
was
completely

revolutionary
for
its
time.

§  The
dome
of
the
Pantheon

steadily
decreases
in

thickness
from
the
drum
to

the
apex,
and
is

constructed
from
pumice
&

Roman
concrete.

§  In
the
very
middle
there
is

an
opening
called
an
oculus

that
acts
as
a
skylight.

§  The
oculus
is
the
only

source
of
natural
lighting

for
the
building’s
interior.

§  The
oculus
measures
30
feet

in
diameter.

§  This
is
the
oldest
domed

building
in
the
world
that

still
has
its
original
roof.

§  From
this
indoor
photo
of

the
Pantheon
you
can
see

the
carved
panels
as
well
as

the
intense
light
that
the

oculus
provides
for
the
room.

§  These
decorative
panels
are

called
coﬀers,
and
serve
two

purposes.

Originally,
the
interior’s
niches
and
altars
contained
images
of
the

Roman
gods
and
goddesses.
However,
when
the
Pantheon
was

consecrated
as
a
Catholic
church
in
609
CE,
they
were
replaced
by
images

of
saints
and
those
buried
within
the
structure.

§  During
Hadrian’s
reign,
he

ordered
construction
of
a

monumental
stone
wall
to

keep
the
‘barbaric’
Scots
and

Picts
from
invading
from
the

North.

§  This
74-‐mile
stretch
across

Northern
England
is
known
as

Hadrian’s
Wall.

§  It
was
8-‐10
feet
wide
and
20

feet
tall,
with
a
tower
located

at
every
mile
mark.

§  It
was
built
in
only
about
8

years,
from
122
–
130
CE!

§  After
Domitian’s
death,
the

Senate
and
the
army
played
a

more
active
role
in
the
selection
of

the
emperor,
which
resulted
in
the

appointment
of
the
Emperor

Nerva
in
96
AD,
who
ruled
until
98

AD.

§  When
he
was
elected
by
the

Senate,
Nerva
was
already
elderly,

and
passed
away
in
oﬃce.

§  Between
96
CE
and
180
CE,
the

Romans
handled
the
problem
of

succession
by
having
each

emperor
select
a
younger

colleague
to
train
as
a
successor.

§  Resulted
in
almost
a
century
of

stability

§  Following
Nerva’s
death,
the

Senate
elected
the
Emperor

Trajan
to
lead
Rome.

§  Born
in
Spain,
he
was
the
ﬁrst

Roman
Emperor
of
non-‐Italian

origin
&
was
a
great
ruler.

§  He
was
able
to
extend
Rome’s

territory
to
its
greatest
size

during
his
reign.

§  Wisely,
Trajan
was
mindful
to

keep
the
Senate
informed

about
his
campaigns,
and

waited
for
their
approval
before

signing
treaties.

§  The
Emperor
was
very

popular
with
the
public

because
he
greatly
increased

Rome’s
wealth
through

conquest
&
spent
large
sums

on
building
aqueducts,

temples
and
public
baths

§  Today
his
body
is
entombed

beneath
his
column
in
the

Roman
Forum.

§  His
reign
ended
with
his

death
in
117
AD.

§  This
belvedere
was

erected
in
celebration

of
Emperor
Trajan’s

victory
over
the

Dacians
(ancient

Romanians).

§  The
story
of
the

campaign
is
depicted

in
a
spiral
relief
that

winds
up
the
length

of
the
column’s
shaft.

§  The
Emperor’s
tomb

is
located
beneath

the
column’s
plinth
in

the
Roman
Forum.

Trajan’s
Column,
Rome,
Italy;

113
CE

§  After
Hadrian’s
death,
Antonius

ruled
as
Emperor
from
138
CE
–

161
AD.

§  He
was
later
assigned
the

honoriﬁc
“Pius”
in
recognition
of

his
just
and
honest
nature.

§  Due
to
his
skillful
management,

the
Roman
Empire
reached
its

peak
under
his
guidance

§  Historically,
he
ruled
during
the

ﬁnal
few
years
of
tranquility
in

Rome.

§  As
a
result,
his
death
is
associated

by
many
with
the
end
of
the
Pax

Romana.

Portrait
of
a
Man

Faiyum,
Egypt;
160-‐170
CE

The Late Imperial Age
§  Historically,
Egyptians
buried

their
dead
in
sarcophagi
with

portrait
masks.

§  In
Roman
times,
however,

painted
encaustic
portraits
on

wood
replaced
the
traditional

stylized
portrait
masks.

§  The
man
in
this
mummy

painting,
mimicking
Marcus

Aurelius,
has
long
curly
hair
and

a
full
beard.

§  This
all
indicates
a
strong

inﬂuence
on
Egyptian
artists
of

the
time
by
Roman
artists.

§  The
Emperor
Marcus
Aurelius,

who
succeeded
Antonius
Pius,

was
the
most
well-‐educated

Roman
Emperor.

§  Apparently,
he
preferred

studying
&
writing
philosophy

–
such
as
his
work
Meditations

–
to
ﬁghting
wars.

§  Unfortunately
for
him,
during

his
reign,
Rome
was
forced
to

ﬁght
constantly
against

foreign
invaders,
such
as
the

Germanic
Goths,
and
the
Asian

Huns.

Equestrian
Statue
of
Marcus
Aurelius

Rome,
Italy;
175
CE

§  This
larger-‐than-‐life
gilded

bronze
equestrian
statue
was

selected
by
Pope
Paul
III
as
the

center
piece
for
Michelangelo’s

new
design
for
the
Capitoline

Hill
(Rome’s
city
hall).

§  Most
ancient
bronze
statues

were
melted
down
for
their

metal
value
during
the
Middle

Ages,
but
this
one
happened
to

have
survived.

§  He
possesses
a
superhuman

grandeur
and
is
much
larger

than
any
normal
human
would

be
in
relation
to
his
horse.

§  He
stretches
out
his
right
arm
in
a

gesture
that
is
both
a
greeting

and
an
oﬀer
of
clemency
(an
act

that
bestows
or
shows
mercy

toward
another
person
over

whom
somebody
has
ultimate

power).

§  Some
speculate
that
an
enemy

once
cowered
beneath
the

horse’s
raised
right
foreleg

begging
the
Emperor
for
mercy.

§  The
statue
conveys
the
awesome

power
of
the
god-‐like
Roman

Emperor
as
ruler
of
the
whole

world.

Equestrian
Statue
of
Marcus
Aurelius,
Rome,
Italy;
175
CE


§  The
start
of
Marcus
Aurelius'
insane

son,
Commodus’s,
reign
from
180
–

192
AD,
signals
the
beginning
of

the
Empire’s
end.

§  Quite
probably
mentally
disturbed,

Commodus
was
a
terrible,
vain
man

who
fought
in
the
gladiatorial

contests
of
the
Coliseum.

§  He
is
said
to
have
fought
in
over

1,000
gladiatorial
contests,
often

dressed
as
Hercules.

§  For
his
amusement,
wounded

soldiers
or
amputees
would
often

be
brought
into
the
arena
for
him

to
kill.

Commodus
As
Hercules,
c.
191-‐192
AD,

Late
Empire
Roman

§  Once,
the
citizens
of
Rome
who

were
missing
their
feet
through

some
accident
were
tied

together,
and
Commodus

clubbed
them
to
death
while

pretending
he
was
a
giant.

§  For
each
appearance
in
the
arena,

he
charged
the
city
of
Rome
a

huge
fee.

§  He
was
later
poisoned
by
his

mistress,
but
he
vomited
the

poison
up.

§  Finally,
Commodus
was
strangled

as
he
bathed
by
his
wrestling

partner.

§  For
the
next
300
years,
Europe

witnessed
the
decline
of
the
Empire.

§  After
Commodus
died,
the
throne

was
up
for
auction.

§  From
192
–
193
AD,
several
men

tried
to
gain
power
by
buying
the

loyalty
of
diﬀerent
Roman
armies.

§  The
Emperor
Septimius
Severus,

who
ruled
from
193
–
211
AD
was
a

weak
military
commander
who

catered
to
the
army
to
hold
his

power

§  He
let
the
men
go
soft
by
allowing

their
families
to
travel
with
them,

(which
slowed
them
down),
and
also

admitted
barbarians
to
the
army.

§  The
new
emperor
Septimius
Severus

proclaimed
himself
as
Marcus
Aurelius’s

son.

§  For
this
reason,
he
is
depicted
with
long

hair
and
the
“trademark”
beard.

§  The
Severan
family
portrait
is
special
for

two
reasons
beyond
its
mere
survival.

§  The
emperor’s
hair
is
tinged
with
gray,

suggesting
that
his
marble
portraits
also

may
have
revealed
his
advancing
age
in

this
way.

§  Also
notice
the
face
of
the
emperor’s

youngest
son,
Geta,
was
erased.

§  When
Caracalla
succeeded
his
father
as

emperor,
he
had
his
brother
murdered
and

his
memory
damned.

§  The
painted
tondo,
circular
format,

portrait
is
an
eloquent
testimony
to
that

damnatio
memoriae
and
to
the
long
arm

of
Roman
authority.

Painted
Portrait
Of
Septimius
Severus
And

His
Family,
c.
200
AD,
Late
Empire
Roman

§  Power
passed
to
Septimius’
son,

Caracalla
(211-‐217
AD),
a
cruel
man

who
murdered
his
brother
to
gain
the

throne

§  Additionally,
he
was
a
poor
leader

who
raised
the
armies’
wages,
bribed

barbarians
to
stay
away
from
Rome
&

increased
taxes
so
much
that
the

currency
lost
its
value.

§  Following
that,
Rome
descends
into
a

state
of
military
anarchy
during
which

there
were
plagues,
constant
wars,

skyrocketing
taxes,
100
claimants
for

the
role
of
Emperor
&
a
abandonment

of
a
cash
economy
in
favor
of
the

barter
system
until
284
AD.

§  Typical
sculpture
of
the

ruthless
emperor
Caracalla

§  The
sculptor
suggested
the

texture
of
his
short
hair
and

cropped
close
beard.

§  Caracalla’s
brow
is
knotted,

and
he
abruptly
turns
his

head
over
his
left
shoulder,
as

if
he
suspects
danger
from

behind.

§  He
was
killed
by
an
assassin’s

dagger
in
the
sixth
year
of
his

ruling.

Portrait
Of
Caracalla,
c.
211-‐217
AD,

Late
Empire
Roman

§  The
Emperor
Diocletian

attempted
to
provide
some

semblance
of
order
during
his

reign
from
284
–
305
AD.

§  His
solution
for
the
unwieldy

Empire
was
to
divide
it
into

Eastern
&
Western
halves,
with

each
half
ruled
by
its
own

Emperor
&
Caesar
(co-‐ruler).

§  This
four-‐man
arrangement
was

called
a
tetrarchy.

§  The
Emperor
Constantine
ruled

with
3
others
from
305
–
324
AD,

and
alone
from
324
–
337
AD.

Portraits
Of
The
Four
Tetrarchs

Saint
Mark’s,
Venice,
305
AD,

Late
Empire
Roman

§  Constantine’s
decisive
victory

over
Maxentius
at
the
Milvian

Bridge
resulted
with
a
great

triple-‐passageway
arch
in
the

shadow
of
the
Colosseum
to

commemorate
his
defeat
of

Maxentius.

§  The
arch
was
the
largest
erected

in
Rome
since
the
end
of
the

Severan
dynasty
nearly
a
century

before.

§  There
is
great
sculptural

decoration,
which
was
taken

from
earlier
monuments
of

Trajan,
Hadrian,
and
Marcus

Aurelius.

Arch
Of
Constantine

Rome,
Italy,
312-‐315
AD,

Late
Empire
Roman

§  Sculptors
re-‐cut
the
heads
of

the
earlier
emperors
with
the

features
of
the
new
ruler
in

honor
of
Constantine.

§  They
also
added
labels
to
the

old
reliefs
that
were
references

to
the
downfall
of
Maxentius

and
the
end
of
civil
war.

§  The
reuse
of
statues
and
reliefs

(spoila)
by
Constantinian
artists

has
been
seen
as
a
decline
in

creativity
and
technical
skill
in

the
waning
years
of
the
pagan

Roman
Empire.

§  In
312
AD,
Emperor
Constantine

had
a
religious
vision
while

preparing
for
battle,
during
which

he
reported
seeing
a
giant
cross

projected
into
the
sky.

§  Upon
witnessing
this,
he
foreswore

his
pagan
beliefs
&
became
a

Christian.

§  Later,
he
would
pass
the
Edict
of

Milan
in
313
AD,

which
granted

religious
toleration
across
the

Empire.

§  As
the
Western
Empire
collapsed,

he
moved
to
Constantinople

(modern-‐day
Istanbul,
Turkey),
and

made
it
the
capital
city
of
the

Empire.

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