- There is an urgent need to evaluate Pakistan's poultry biodiversity and compile available data for future scientific and biotechnological applications in food production. - To achieve this, trained experts in conservation biology and genetics must be developed. The latest genetic tools like DNA profiling can help conserve genetic resources efficiently. - Active involvement of various stakeholders like the government, research institutions, private sector and poultry community is essential. Systematic efforts should be made to assess indigenous breeds, compile databases, and apply conservation principles to maintain genetic diversity.

1. Why conserve Poultry biodiversity?
• Poultry biodiversity refers to the genetic
variants available within and among poultry
species (chicken, turkey, quail, duck, goose,
pheasant) distributed around the globe.
• Distinct indigenous varieties, native breeds,
small scale traditional farms, fancy breeds
maintained by hobbyists, stocks developed
and maintained by government and research
institutions and specialized populations
developed by industry form the bulk of this
genetic reservoir.

2. Biodiversity??
• The huge potential of these valuable resources
for
contributing
to
food
production,
biotechnology and health of humankind remains
largely untapped.
• These germ plasm resources form the basis for
future economic, scientific and socio cultural
opportunities. Maintenance of the genetic
potential of these resources at adequate levels
requires systematic scientific application of
conservation biology principles.

3. Genetic Conservation
• Applied conservation genetics, which
integrates population genetics and molecular
biology, has attracted the attention of
international scientific community recently.
• This emerging discipline would help identify,
analyze and develop strategies to conserve
existing biological diversity and variability
and make them potentially available for
future scientific progress.

4. Causes of decline in Poultry biodiversity:
 Diminishing poultry biodiversity and genetic variation:
1. Accelerated loss of experimental/ specialized
research populations
2. Replacement of locally adapted breeds in small
farms and villages with modern industry stocks
3. Consolidation of primary breeding companies
globally resulting in loss of foundation populations
(business decisions?)
4. Erosion of genetic potential in industry stocks as a
result of decades of intensive selection stretching
biological limits

5. Erosion of genetic potential:
• As a result of intense genetic selection over
many decades, there is loss of genetic
variation in industrial stocks and many stocks
may be nearing physiological plateau in the
near future.
• Stocks with less genetic variability can not
cope up with challenges like: newly emerging
or reemerging diseases, environment
conditions etc.

6. Genetic Diversity
• Genetic diversity in industrial stocks is
essential to afford future opportunities
of selection for changed market/
consumer preferences, products etc.
• This makes it imperative for primary
poultry breeding companies to conserve
all their bio-resources without dropping.

7. Conservation of Biodiversity by Molecular tools:
• The modern day molecular tools provide highly
efficient scientific levers to arrest the decline in
biodiversity of the endangered poultry species. With
the advent of various DNA profiling techniques, the
endangered and threatened breeds of poultry can be
efficiently evaluated for their genetic worth and be
maintained without further erosion of genetic
variability.
• The multi-locus DNA fingerprinting utilizing VNTR
sequences (conserved across the various orders,
genera and species of avis), provide the most
economic and powerful way of analyzing their intra
and inter-population genetic variability.

8. Conservation of Biodiversity
• Besides working as ultimate tools to determine the
parentages and strain/ line identities, these tools can be
used for greater application in conservation genetics.
• By DNA fingerprinting, it is possible to deduce the existing
genetic relatedness and or distances between individuals &
breeds and there by estimate various population
parameters:
 Average heterozygosity in a given flock (even in absence of
pedigree and quantitative information),
 Coefficient of genetic differentiation (that reflects the
components of total genetic variation attributable to intra
and inter-population genetic variations)
 and above all, the indices for inbreeding (accumulated over
generations) to any breeder stock.

9. Conservation of Biodiversity
• By judicious amalgamation of the DNA
profiling tools, the job of arresting the fastdiminishing bio-diversity becomes much
easier and a feasible task.
• With the release of the draft chicken genome
map database by the NIH, USA, since March
2004, there is an excess of DNA markers
available to the molecular geneticists, which
can be put to use for the conservation
geneticist following suitable protocols.

10. Conservation of Biodiversity
• Among the most potential DNA markers are:
microsatellites, unique RFLPs and SNPs, which
can be efficiently used for the above, using the
sequence info, freely accessible from the public
domain databases.
• With such available genetic information in
hand, custom-breeding programs can be
designed, by the breeders, which could helpconserve any endangered breed in a scientific
manner.

11. Systematic steps
to arrest decline of poultry biodiversity:
• Training: It is important to take urgent steps to
generate trained human resources with knowledge
of conservation biology especially genetics.
• Education: Veterinary/animal husbandry curricula
may incorporate conservation biology as one of
core subjects.
• Research: Studies encouraged at post graduate and
doctorate levels to assess and compile database on
biologically important indigenous varieties of
chicken species.
• Data: organization on the lines of American
Livestock Breeds Conservancy (ALBC).

12. Systematic steps
to arrest decline of poultry biodiversity:
• Standards: Compilation of Pakistan Poultry Breed Standards
and Specifications like British Poultry Standards or American
Standards of perfection.
• Extension: Encourage local/fancy chicken breeding at their
source locations
• Coordination: Coordinate with zoological parks and wildlife
personnel in assessing the genetic worth of avian/chicken
species available with them and apply conservation genetics
principles to maintain present levels of diversity
• Participation: Encourage private sector pharmaceutical,
biotechnology, bioinformatics firms to invest in conservation
of valuable avian genetic resources of Pakistan.

13. Summary
• There is an urgent need to evaluate the
poultry biodiversity of Pakistan and to
compile available data base for future
potential applications in scientific and
biotechnological applications of food
production.
• To achieve this objective, trained human
resources in the areas of conservation
biology especially genetics are to be made
available within a reasonable time.

14. Summary
• The latest emerging genetic tools like DNA
profiling procedures are real boons for such
purposes and should be employed to the
advantage of conservation genetics.
• Active involvement of various agencies and
poultry community is very essential.

15. Local breeds:
• The original breeds consisting of locally adapted
stocks evolved over millions of years get replaced by
modern industrial stocks at a faster rate.
• The true genetic potentials and their value to food
production and biotechnology are, as such, unknown.
• This is especially true for developing countries like
Pakistan where, due to economic reasons small-scale
poultry breeders and fanciers are not able to survive.
• Globally, FAO (2000) has listed 30 extinct chicken
breeds in the recent past with many more in critical
list.

16. • Practical 3 Dated 23-10-2013

17. Local breeds:
• The total percentage of avian breeds at risk of
being lost increased from 51 to 63% in a matter
of 4 years indicating the alarming trend.
• USA has a system of periodic census inventories
of genetic resources available with small and
middle level poultry breeds having economic
and historical significance through American
Livestock Breeds Conservancy (ALBC).
• American Poultry Association also lists more
than 150 breed standards. Pakistan Poultry
database on the above model is very important.

18. Consolidation of primary breeding companies:
• Due to thin profit margins and severe competition the
global poultry breeding companies witness many
mergers, closures and takeovers.
• This has resulted in an overall decrease in total
number of elite pure lines by these multinationals
marketing breeding stocks globally.
• In egg layer stocks only five major poultry breeding
companies supply almost all the eggers throughout
the world.
• Six major primary breeders holding 35-40 pure lines
control and supply 400 billion market broilers
globally.

19. Consolidation of primary breeding companies:
• These stocks are designed and genetically selected over
many generations for economically important traits of
growth, production, and reproduction.
• They also require specialized management, nutrition, and
disease prevention and environment conditions for
optimal performance to ensure profitability.
• Because of their uniform genotype they may not have
adequate heterozygosity to sustain evolutionary genetic
adaptations.
• Decisions about retention or termination of lines from
programs are necessarily based on profitability and not
genetic. As a result, these stocks have a restricted narrow
genetic base.

20. Erosion of genetic potential:
• As a result of intense genetic selection over many
decades, there is loss of genetic variation in industrial
stocks and many stocks may be nearing physiological
plateau in the near future.
• Stocks with less genetic variability can not cope up
with challenges like: newly emerging or reemerging
diseases, environment conditions etc.
• Genetic diversity in industrial stocks is essential to
afford future opportunities of selection for changed
market/consumer preferences, products etc.
• This makes it imperative for primary poultry breeding
companies to conserve all their bio-resources without
dropping.

21. Genetic Resource
• The excellent advances in poultry production during
20th century are attributable to a large extent
usage of population genetics principles and
intensive selection and development of specialized
populations of poultry.
• The breed base made available to scientists at the
turn of 19th century provided resources and
opportunity to achieve many scientific advances
during 20th century.
• For continued genetic progress during 21st century,
it is very important to conserve the genetic
reservoir of existing poultry populations which can
respond to future research and production needs.

22. Genetic Resource
• The biological diversity of the planet is
rapidly being depleted and is a global
concern because of dangers of total
extinction and/or endangered level of many
flora and fauna.
• Poultry biodiversity is also declining at an
alarming level globally and we may need to
review the urgency of conserving poultry
biodiversity because avian species are unique
and different from other flora and fauna.

23. INTRODUCTION
• Webster’s New -World Dictionary defines proof as “anything
serving or tending to establish the truth of something, or to
convince one of its truth; conclusive evidence” (1968, Simon
&Schuster, N.Y.).
• Presently, animal breeding has an aura of unreality relying too
heavily on theoretical expectations without empirical verification.
• Many experts strongly criticize the tendency of population
geneticists to devote too much interest to the development of
statistical methods, and not enough on obtaining experimental
results that could validate and expand the biological model.
• Animal breeders tend to accept models with unrealistic
assumptions. Assumptions need to be validated and viewed with
skepticism.

24. WHERE ARE WE? In Broilers!
• The modern broiler grows more than three times faster than the
vintage broiler (around 1960) with greater meat yield and better
feed conversion reaching market weight on much less feed
required by the vintage broiler.
• Even when grown to a fixed age, the modem broiler has better
feed conversion (30% better at 42 d) despite reaching a greater
size (about 2130 g vs 510 g at 42 d) than the vintage broiler
(Havenstein et aI. 1994a).
• The greater part of these changes have resulted from genetic
improvement: 85.3% for growth rate, 91.3% for carcass yield and
62.5% for feed conversion; with the remainder being due to diet
(Havenstein ef al. 1994a,b).

25. Improvement in Broiler Parameters
1.
2.
3.
4.
• All of the changes in broilers have not been positive.
The incidence of leg and other skeletal problems has
increased.
Mortality due to physiological changes has increased and is
excessive under many circumstances such as at altitude, in
high heat and humidity and under reduced air flow or any
other extreme stress.
Reproductive fitness has been negatively affected by
selection for increased body weight although onset and
severity vary and can be partially counteracted by selection.
Reproductive problems exacerbated by excess fatness are
controlled in modem broiler parents by feed restriction
programs. However, increased fat in modem broilers is
exaggerated as vintage broilers and modem broilers of the
same weight have a similar percent fat..

26. Improvement in Layers
 The modern layer out put is considerably higher.
• Egg numbers have increased from less than 270 to over 340 eggs
between 1950 and 1993 (a 28.8% increase). This represents an
average increase of about 1.8 eggs per year.
• Simultaneously, egg mass has been improved by 42.7%, egg
weight by 11.7% and feed efficiency by 32.4%.
• Egg shell strength was unchanged and albumen quality has
improved slightly.
• Fertility and hatchability have remained high or improved slightly.
• Since selection in layers is largely for fitness traits, most of the
problems plaguing broilers have been avoided.
• Due to the nature of important traits in layers, change has been
slower than in broilers.

27. • Practical 4 Dated 30-10-2013

28. Quantitative genetic theory in animal breeding,
 Major Assumptions of Infinitesimal Model and Quantitative genetic
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
An infinite number of loci;
Unlinked loci;
Only additive effects in base population
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
Linkage equilibrium;
Genetic and environmental effects normally, independently distributed;
Constant genetic and phenotypic (co)variances;
Genetic and phenotypic (co)variances of the base population are known.
Selection is on a linear function of the records;
The relationship matrix is complete (no missing or incorrect records);
Multivariate normality even after repeated selection,
Genetic parameters are symmetrical;
No genotype-environment interactions
The underlying genetic model is known.

29. Credibility of Infinitesimal Model
 Most Infinitesimal Model assumptions are known
to be false with regard to the poultry genome.
 The number of loci in the poultry genome are finite.
 The assumption of normality may not be reasonable, especially
after repeated selection.
 Directional dominance and linkage accentuate the problem.
 Economic traits in poultry have considerable genetic non
additivity
 Fitness characters have low, asymmetrical heritabilities and
asymmetrical correlations exist for several traits

30. Credibility of Infinitesimal Model
 Low frequency genes with large negative effects have
been observed for some fitness traits
 Many examples of major genes affecting economic
traits exist
 It is a known fact that selection changes genetic
parameters.
 Several studies reported substantial changes in
genetic correlations (re3) with selection .
 As so many Infinitesimal Model assumptions are
incorrect, its value as a model for the assessment of
genetic improvement is questionable.

31. Selection Techniques
• Selection techniques. Several multiple trait,
multiple source selection techniques exist:
• Index selection (IS) or Best Linear Unbiased
Prediction (BLUP); and several culling methods.
• Current theory heralds BLUP as the best”
selection method Fixed effects aside, as a
generalization of selection index theory to
unequal information on relatives (Lin 1978),
• BLUP embodies many aspects of the
Infinitesimal Model. Thus, the efficiency of BLUP
is suspect, especially in some cases.

32. Selection Techniques
• In experimental comparisons with chickens, family and index
selection was less effective while individual selection was more
effective than expected (Kinney et al. 1970; Garwood & Lowe
1979; Garwood et al. 1980).
• In more recent experiments with Drosophila, Perez and Toro
(1992) compared three family selection indices for progeny
number: dam record only, dam plus dam full-sibs, and dam
plus dam and sire full sibs. Response was the reverse of that
expected.
• The efficiency of family information may be affected by:
weights placed on sources of information; inbreeding and the
loss of allelic variation; incorrect parameter estimation; the use
of theoretical genetic relationships; and assumptions of
additivity.

33. • The presence of nonadditive genetic effects (Johannsson et
al. 1995) and common environmental (Harris ef al. 1984)
effects, such as congenital diseases like the lymphoid
leukosis virus, may bias estimates of breeding values based
on information from relatives.
• While adding information from relatives may potentially
increase selection accuracy chiefly in traits with low h*,
optimal weights of sources of information may deviate from
theory.
• BLUP tends toward the selection of families resulting in an
elevated rate of inbreeding. The loss of favorable alleles as a
consequence of inbreeding may be more serious by lowering
the limits of selection and the rate of genetic progress.

34. • Hypothetically, BLUP may optimize short-term
response if the genetic model approximates that
assumed, but even so, long-term response may be
compromised If the rate of inbreeding is restricted to
the same level as that of phenotypic selection, then
even theoretically BLUP has little advantage (Quinton
& Smith 1995).
• Several investigators have examined the effect of
parameter estimation errors on selection accuracy,
concluding that errors in parameter estimation,
notably in estimates of genetic correlations, could
produce large biases in estimated selection criteria.

35. • In the use of IS and BLUP, additive genetic
relationships are assumed to be known. In fact,
they are theoretical estimates derived from the
pedigree representing an expectation based on
sampling parental genotypes.
• Even in direct descent where the assumed
additive genetic relationship must hold,
sampling of parental genotypes may be biased
based on differential exclusion, gametic
competition, or mortality. Also, the efficiency of
IS and BLUP are greatest at constant allelic
frequencies.

36. •
As allelic frequencies change, IS and BLUP become
increasingly less efficient. Since the only basis for genetic
change is in fact genetic change (shifting allelic frequencies),
the fiction of fixed allelic frequencies becomes foolish and
the efficiency of IS and BLUP over generations of selection
becomes increasingly questionable.
• BLUP and IS assume multivariate normality. In swine, the
researchers reported selection results that deviated
significantly from theoretical expectations due to the failure
of the assumption of multivariate normality.
• For traits such as egg number which do not show multivariate normality, IS may fail to perform as predict & Culling
techniques such as multiple trait culling levels and index
updating can effective alternatives to BLUP and SI under
some circumstances.

37. • Where the genetic architecture of traits does not conform
to BLUP and IS assumptions, culling might be more
efficient than BLUP as might a base index ignoring genetic
covariances.
• There might be a number of alternatives to BLUP, but we
do not have any empirical evidence. Fitness traits which
often have asymmetrical herabilities are good examples.
• In chickens, fertility and hatchability can easily be
decreased and in some progenies decreases on the order
of 30-40 % are not unusual. Corresponding increases
cannot be found.
• Further, fertility and hatchability are at very high levels in
most improved lines, such that they can be viewed as
approaching a limit.

38. • Both fertility and hatchability can be maintained
at high levels using a culling scheme that has
little effect on the selection pressure available
for other traits.
• In chickens, most mortality is due to disease.
Each cause (pathogen and virulence) can be
viewed as a separate trait.
• No effective method of selecting for general
disease resistance exists (Gavora 1990).
• Selection for immune responses has been
successful without corresponding improvements
in disease resistance (Kean et al. 1994).

39. • Selection on general mortality in normal
populations is selection primarily on exposure,
which is futile.
• Although this is well known, many theorists still
treat mortality as a single trait applying methods
that will fail and even “prove”, using index in
retrospect
techniques,
that
genetic
improvements have been made although
challenge tests would prove to the contrary.
• Treating traits or groups of traits differently
makes good sense biologically.

40. • For characters with means approaching limits, negative
major gene effects inherited in a Mendelian fashion and
asymmetrical heritabilities, BLUP or IS may have little logic
or value.
• Also, for compound traits like mortality, where each cause
of mortality is a different trait, usually with very low
incidence, and is highly dependent on exposure and
virulence, intense BLUP selection will have little beneficial
effect, wasting selection pressure that could be used
elsewhere.
• Empirical evidence and accumulated knowledge of the
genome support the current practice of using different
methods for different traits as the biological nature of each
dictates.

41. • Practical 5 Dated 7-11-2013

42. Future Poultry Improvement
• There are a number of techniques that are of potential
value to future poultry improvement:
1. Increasingly vocal animal welfare (and animal rights)
concerns in addition to economic considerations may
dictate that poultry be selected for adaptation to
production environments;
2. Animal breeding is becoming increasingly costly and
multiple stage selection may allow more cost effective
breeding programs and make better use of facilities
3. Molecular genetic techniques show promise for
revolutionary changes in animal improvement
techniques.

43. Adaptation to production environments.
 The example of group selection.
• The housing of laying hens in group battery cages has been
considered to be reducing well-being and commercial
performanance.
• Beak trimming and battery housing of layers which are
viewed as causing stress for extended periods of time.
• Such practices have been severely restricted in Europe.
• It suggests modifying the behavior of the bird so that beak
trimming to prevent cannibalism is unnecessary and the
cage environment is no longer stressful to the bird
• Other types of housing designed to replace battery cages
can also be very stressful to birds.

44. Group Selection
• Group selection
method to produce cooperative
genotypes adapted to battery cages as opposed to the
selfish, competitive genotypes maladapted to battery
cages produced by conventional selection revealed that:
 Egg production and hen days increased while mortality
decreased sharply.
 In a direct comparison with a commercial and genetic
control line in multiple hens cages, the group selected line
had much higher egg production, much lower mortality
and much better feather scores than the commercial and
control lines.
 This clearly demonstrates that selection for adaptation
can improve welfare as well as commercial performance.

45. Multiple stage selection.
• When traits are expressed for selection at different ages
or there are large differences in costs of measuring traits,
selection by independent culling levels may give a higher
aggregate economic return compared IS or BLUP, because
not all traits need be measured on all individuals.
• However, general solutions for optimum independent
culling levels are not possible and specific solutions
require numerical integration.
• Also, independent culling for each trait ignores superiority
in other traits.
• Independent culling levels procedure using orthogonal
transformation of the original traits can be used.

46. Multiple stage selection.
• This procedure furnishes solutions for optimum
truncation points and has similar properties to
multiple stage selection index so that resulting
genetic gains may exceed conventional
independent culling levels selection.
• For most situations, a multiple stage selection
scheme, either conventional or transformed
culling, can have an efficiency close to that of
index selection.
• Further, their procedure can optimize aggregate
economic return per unit of cost associated with
obtaining measures on each trait.

47. Multiple stage selection.
• Multiple stage selection is a common procedure used by all
commercial broiler breeders. In dam lines, birds are first culled
on weight with the superior pullets further tested for adult
performance.
• Culling levels are commonly derived empirically over time
through feedback of results and within generation by iteration
to achieve specific goals rather than based on theory.
• Too intense early culling can erode genetic gain for later traits.
Too feeble an intensity at early culling can incur significant
additional costs. Industry culling procedures may be close to
optimum, but this new theory may make additional gains or
profits possible.
• Also, profitability of alternative breeding schemes can be
assessed using index updating

48. Molecular markers (or genes) in poultry breeding.
• Markers have many important and useful applications in poultry
improvement. Some of the many applications will be briefly
discussed: Establishing genetic relationships; Predicting heterosis;
Genomic selection; and Marker Assisted Selection (MAS).
 Estabishing genetic relatioships.
• DNA-based technologies like DNA fingerprints (DFP) are powerful
tools for identification and pedigree determination. Identification
applications have many mundane but useful functions: preventing or
correcting pedigree errors; recovering pedigrees; retrospective
genetic analysis. In the study of inbreeding, genetic drift or mutation,
DNA-based methods provide an unparalleled tool to follow changes
at the DNA level.

49. Heterosis
• Heterosis is substantial for most commercial
traits in chickens.
• Almost all commercial male and female parent
lines and virtually all commercial broilers or
layers are crosses.
• There could be a substantial advantage to
predicting the heterosis expected from crosses
at all levels.
• Preliminary results in laying hens show promise
for the prediction of heterosis using DNA
fingerprint information.

50. Genome Selection
• Genomic Selection. Occasionally, genes must quickly
and economically be introduced into poultry
populations (introgression). Undesirable genes in the
donor genome must be excluded as far as possible.
• Theoretically, DNA-based markers can enhance the
efficiency of introgression.
• Ideal introgression would employ equally spaced
markers in the host genome and tightly linked
flanking markers for the donor gene. The gene of
interest could then be introgressed with the highest
recovery of the host genome

51. Marker Assisted Selection
• However, suitable markers must be found and unless
database with suitable cloned DNA, this may be no
trivial problem. they can be located in a Marker
assissed seZectitm ~J4W$J.
• Use of MAS in any form requires linkage
disequilibrium, either at the family or population
level.
• In the case of a randomly mating population,
different individuals will tend to be in equilibrium
with QTL alleles segregating in proportion to the
relative frequencies of the alleles.

52. • Alternative marker genotypes will include
both positive and negative alleles at any
linked QTL, and the mean quantitative value
of the alternate marker genotypes will not
differ even when a linked segregating QTL is
present in the population.
• Therefore, specific linkage arrangements
must be determined for each individual by
progeny testing numerous offspring.

53. BLUP & MAS
• Theoretically, generalized mixed model (BLUP)
approaches for incorporating markers into
breeding programs reduce the erosion of marker
information from one generation to the next
and maximizes expected response of MAS, but
require abundant QTL’s with large effects to be
effective assuming all alleles are traceable.
• However, finding loci with large effects in a
population which has undergone long term
selection would be unexpected unless the gene
has a negative plieotropic effect on fitness.

54. MAS Effectiveness
• Using a Monte Carlo simulation program, Zhang
and Smith (1993) simulated the effectiveness of
MAS. Selection on the phenotype always gave
greater response than selection on markers only.
• As expected, combined selection gave greater
response than selection on the phenotype or
marker.
• However, the improvement was considerably
below the 100% to 200% improvement
prediction.

55. Constraints MAS
• However, MAS assumes an additive model. In wide
crosses of tomatoes, De vicente and Tanksley (1993)
found at least one QTL had an effect opposite of that
expected due to overdominance. In inbred line
crosses, Edwards et al. (1987) found that
overdominance occurred frequently for yield traits
• Evaluating expression of QTL’s in different dams
concluded that associations between DFP band
patterns and quantitative traits may not be consistent
in different genetic backgrounds. Epistatic effects
(AXA, AXD, and DxD) were significant for egg
production traits. All of this suggests problems in the
application of MAS.

56. Effectiveness MAS
• An economic study of MAS using the efficiencies and costs
with an assumed 100 fold decrease due to technology
advances by 1994, concluded that in most realistic animal
breeding operations use of MAS will not be profitable.
• Zhang and Smith (1993) concluded that MAS will have
limited value until close linkages or the QTL’s themselves
are identified.
• From numerous other theoretical evaluations of MAS it
can be generally concluded that MAS will only be
advantageous for traits which cannot be measured on the
individual and in species which allow for large family sizes.
• Thus, MAS appears to be of little importance in genetic
improvement of poultry.

57. Effectiveness MAS
• To date, MAS has not been used or tested on a wide scale.
The only reported attempt to actually use MAS was that
of Dunnington et al. (1992) who used within family MAS
by tail analysis.
• Birds were hi-directionally selected based on two markers
which had a significant effect on body weight @WV).
Offspring of those mating were not significantly merest.
• The authors attributed the lack of response on BW to
false positives. Nevertheless, the authors examined the
most favorable case for MAS, i.e. intermediate gene
frequencies for the QTLs by crossing bi directionally
selected populations, and it failed.

58. Effectiveness MAS
• All theoretical studies of MAS assume an
existing gene pool. MAS only changes
frequencies of existing alleles.
• A more beneficial use of this technology is to
search for alleles in wild ancestors of
domesticated species which have become lost.
• In every instance where this was used new
alleles that outperformed the elite parents by as
much as 20% were found Thus, the real value of
MAS in most species may be to look for lost
alleles in distant ancestors.

59. • Next

60. Genetics of sex determination in
mammals versus birds:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
MAMMALS
(e.g., humans, cows, etc.)
Male = XY
Female = XX
Males determine the sex of the offspring
BIRDS
(including all poultry species)
Male = ZZ
Female = ZW
Females determine the sex of the offspring

61. DNA

62. Sex Chromosomes
• Every individual has two sets of chromosomes one from the mother and one from the father.
• Each set contains a sex chromosome which is
important in determining the gender of the
animal.
• In mammals there are two possible sexchromosomes - X and Y. Females have to X
chromosomes (XX) while males have one of
each (XY).

63. Sex Determination
• Male mammals, therefore, determine the
gender of the offspring.
• In birds, however, the two sex chromosomes
are Z and W. The females are ZW and the
males are ZZ.
• For birds, therefore, it is the female that
determines the sex of the offspring.

80. CHICKEN Assessment for improving productivity
Assessment at 8 and 16 Weeks of Age
1. Skull width
• A wide skull on a chicken is a strong indicator of
good growth potential. If birds cannot be
physically examined, often judging skull width
visually can be a reliable indicator of young birds
with good growth potential.
• If the skull is narrow, then the rest of the bird
will be narrow. As a rule of thumb, medium to
large skull width is good for egg layers, and large
to extra wide skulls are better for meat birds.

81. 2. Heart girth
 A good heart girth is an indicator that there is
enough space for the internal organs to be of
good size, maximizing the bird’s potential for
growth and development. Care must be taken to
ensure that the girth is accurately assessed.
• Often, if the bird’s legs are held slightly forward
during the assessment, the girth can seem larger
than it actually is. For a more precise
assessment have the legs of the bird pointing
towards the rear of its body and place your
fingers on each side of the ribs just behind
where the wings attach to the birds body.

82. 3. Back flatness, length, and breadth
• A flat back makes for a more attractive carcass
on a table bird. Good length and width
contribute to the quality of the dressed bird as
well. Flat backs are one indicator of good bone
development in a bird. The back should be wide
and carry its width along its length.
• Generous length and width of back are
indicators of longevity, vigor, and provide ample
capacity for egg and digestive organs. Birds with
narrow or tapered backs lack the capacity for
satisfactory egg production.

83. 4. Body depth, capacity
• As with heart girth, this aspect of the bird’s
body indicates whether there is ample or
restricted space for internal organs. Body
depth is the thickness between the back and
the keel.
• Good depth gives birds an advantage for
internal organ development. This factor also
contributes to carcass appearance for the
table bird.

84. 5. Breast and keel
• The keel is examined for its straightness &
length (for good carcass appearance) and the
breast is inspected for development of good
meat proportions.
• The amount of meat on the breast will
ultimately drive the bird’s appeal to the
consumer.
• Position the bird in an inverted manner to get
an accurate feel for fleshing.

85. 6.Weight
• Young birds can be weighed to determine overall
growth rates for the flock. Weight has the advantage
of being an impartial record that can allow
comparison of different generations of birds.
• As your flock grows and years of selection occur,
target weights can be designated as minimum
qualifications for retention of breeding stock.
• Males should meet or exceed 5.1 pounds and females
3.5 pounds by age 16 weeks. The heaviest birds that
make the cut in the first 5 categories can be marked
as potential breeders as early as 8 weeks of age.

86. 7. Color
• Although ideal color is nice, it is not a necessity in the
early stages of selection for production traits in a breed.
• It should be noted that it is more important to have males
with good color than females because the males carry two
genes for color (ZZ) and females only one (Z0). Once
production traits meet the program’s goals, then color can
be improved through further selective breeding.
• The bottom line is that color is much easier to correct than
production traits.
• Width of skull, heart girth, flatness of back, and fleshing
on breast are the most significant qualities to look for in
the selection process with young birds. They are
characteristics that all of the superior birds excel in.
Typically, the birds that excelled in these traits at 8 weeks
of age will remain the top birds at 16 weeks of age.

87. Some Other Points
1. Appetite equals rate of growth
– A bird’s body grows
according to the inputs it receives. Thus, a bird that eats larger
quantities of food will grow faster than a bird that eats smaller
quantities of the same food. All other factors being equal,
individual birds that show strong appetites should be given
consideration when choosing breeding stock.
2. Protein equals rate of growth – Just as the amount of
food consumed affects the rate at which a bird grows, so does the
quality of the feed provided. Higher protein diets, up to 30%
protein, are to be preferred for birds that have access to range
and which are expected to grow at significant or reasonable rates.
Low protein diets, 16% protein and lower, can reduce the rate of
growth by as much as 50% and cause adult size to less than the
genetic potential not to mention that lower protein diets often
cost more money in the long run, as the birds will often eat more
total pounds of feed for pounds gained.

88. Some Other Points
3. Wide feathers – Birds with wide feathers grow at a
faster rate than birds with narrow feathers. This has
largely to due with the fact that narrow feathers allow
more body heat to escape and thus less of the food
consumed goes into growth. Birds with narrow feathers
can be identified at an early age, as they are apt to be
slow to grow back feathers for the first 6 weeks of life.
4. Mortality – Extremely slow or excessively fast maturing
chicks tend to suffer higher mortality than chicks which
grow at a “normal” rate. Excessively fast maturing poultry
have thinner gastro-intestinal tracts, which allow for
faster nutrient uptake. But the thinness of these tracts can
also make for proneness to intestinal blowouts and
infections.

89. Some Other Points
5. Size
•
•
Mature size and rate of growth are not
positively correlated. The largest male
produced weighed 9.5 pounds at one year of
age. This same male weighed only 5.13 pounds
at 16 weeks of age while others reached as
much as 6.0 pounds by the same age.
Both mature size and rate of growth are
important
considerations
for
potential
breeding stock.