6. Which direction does replication go?
Major enzyme: DNA polymerase III
DNA double helix unwinds at a specific point called an
origin of replication
Polynucleotide chains are synthesized in both directions
from the origin of replication; DNA replication is
bidirectional in most organisms
At each origin of replication, there are two replication
forks, points at which new polynucleotide chains are
formed
There is one origin of replication and two replication forks in
the circular DNA of prokaryotes
In replication of a eukaryotic chromosome, there are
several origins of replication and two replication forks at
each origin
9. DNA synthesis based on two template strands: leading strand and
lagging strand templates; mechanism in prokaryotes is presented
DNA is synthesized from its 5’ -> 3’ end (from
the 3’ -> 5’ direction of the template)
the leading strand is synthesized continuously in
the 5’ -> 3’ direction toward the replication fork
the lagging strand is synthesized
semidiscontinuously (Okazaki fragments) also in
the 5’ -> 3’ direction, but away from the replication
fork
lagging strand fragments are joined by the
enzyme DNA ligase
14. Unwinding
DNA gyrase introduces a swivel point in
advance of the replication fork
a helicase binds at the replication fork and
promotes unwinding
single-stranded binding (SSB) protein protects
exposed regions of single-stranded DNA
15.
16. Primase catalyzes the synthesis of RNA primer
Synthesis
catalyzed by Pol III
primer removed by Pol I
DNA ligase seals remaining nicks
17.
18.
19.
20.
21. Summary of DNA replication in
prokaryotes
DNA synthesis is bidirectional
DNA synthesis is in the 5’ -> 3’ direction
the leading strand is formed continuously
the lagging strand is formed as a series of
Okazaki fragments which are later joined
22. DNA polymerases
Five DNA polymerases have been found to exist in
E. coli
Pol I is involved in synthesis and repair
Pol II, IV, and V are for repair under unique conditions
Pol III is primarily responsible for new synthesis
23. Eukaryotic DNA replication
Not as understood as prokaryotic. Due in no
small part to higher level of complexity.
Cell growth and division divided into phases:
M, G1, S, and G2
DNA replication occurs during the S phase
24.
25. RNA synthesis
Transcription
Template is DNA
Major enzyme: DNA directed RNA polymerase
No need for primers
5’ to 3’ direction
26. RNA synthesis
Requires a promoter region in the template DNA
to which the RNA polymerse will bind
Promoter 40 base pairs upstream (-40) away
from the start site (+1)
Three stages:initiation, elongation, termination
Termination may be
rho factor dependent – rho factor terminates
synthesis
or rho factor independent – formation of a stable
hairpin loop
27. Promoter 40 base pairs upstream (-40)
away from the start site (+1)
32. Eukarotic transcription have 3 classes of
RNA polymerases
RNA pol I transcribes large ribosomal RNA
genes
RNA pol II transcribes protein encoding gene
RNA pol III transcribes small RNAs
(including tRNA and 5SRNA)
33. Post transcriptional modification of the
eukaryotic mRNA
Capping – methyl guanosine attachment at the
5’ end to protect the cleavage of the RNA by
exonucleases as RNA moves out of the nucleus
Addition of poly A at the 3’ end (200-250 long)
helps to stabilize the mRNA structure; increases
resistance to cellular nucleases
Splicing – removal of non coding sequences
(introns)
34.
35.
36.
37. Protein synthesis
Translation
Based on the m-RNA sequence, genetic
code
Starts from 5’ end of the transcript
Occurs in the ribosomes
Activation of amino acids – attachment to the
tRNA
Initiation, elongation, termination
38. Genetic code
Triplet nucleotide – one amino acid
Nonoverlapping
No punctuation
Degenerate
Almost universal
45. Postranslational modification
Protein folding –chaperones
Proteolytic cleavage (zymogens) – hydrolytic
enzymes in the gut
Amino acid modifications
Attachment of carbohydrates
Addition of prosthetic groups
46. Regulation of protein synthesis and gene
expression
20K to 25K genes in the human genome
Only a fraction of the genes are expressed at
any given time
Two types of gene expression: constitutive
and inducible
Inducible genes are highly regulated –
regulatory proteins, hormones and
metabolites