1. onychurch
The people of Africa who were brought across the Atlantic
ocean to work on the sugar and coffee plantations of Dominica
from the early 1700s up until 1807 came from West Africa,
from areas inland beyond the coast in a region that extended
from what is today Senegal down to Angola.
Two other periods of African arrival refreshed the cultural influences from across
the Atlantic. After the first stage of Emancipation in 1834, a small group of
workers from West Africa voluntarily agreed to contract themselves to come and
work in Dominica for wages and settled near some estates.
Then in 1837 and at other times around those years, ships carrying enslaved
West Africans across the Atlantic Ocean and destined for colonies and states
where slavery had not yet been abolished, were captured by the British Royal
Navy. The slaves on board were disembarked on the islands including Dominica
and were liberated. Areas where these persons were placed included Soufriere,
Woodford Hill, Castle Bruce, Portsmouth and St.Joseph. Some African family
names still with us that were handed down are: Akie, Cuffy (Kofi), Carbon
(Gabon), Quamie, Quashie and Africa:
Africa: A family name originating from the village of Woodford Hill. The
descendants of West Africans brought to Dominica after slave emancipation and
who were landed as free people. They did not experience plantation slavery.
The British Royal Navy had orders to search the seas, and to capture and
liberate the people on any vessels carrying enslaved Africans that were heading
for Brazil, Cuba, the USA and other destinations where slavery had not yet been
abolished. Some of these vessels were seized near Dominica and the people on
board were set free here. The Dominican ‘ creoles’ , born and brought up on
the island for many generations, called the new arrivals ‘ The Africans’ . A
group of them at Woodford Hill took the name as their surname. Other places
receiving free Africans were Portsmouth, Castle Bruce, St Joseph and Soufriere.
The West African influences in Dominica remain in aspects of:
Language: certain words that are still used, see below, and the syntax of
speech which is the way that sentences are constructed.
Dance: The Bele and other dance forms (see below) were transferred from
West African dances.
Music: Drum music and the rhythms associated with drumming. The building
of drums

2. Song: The type of songs with call and response, known in Creole as
"Lavway" that is used in Bele, in Carnival songs and years ago in work songs ,
wakes for the dead, songs used when sawing wood or hauling boats. For
Carnival see below.
Food: Root tubers such as yams (see below), ackras and "one pot hold all".
Pounded food called "Ton-Ton".
Dress: Ornate dress to show status as described below in the Douillette; The
use of gold chain and jewelry and today; The use of heavy gold adornment by
men as well.
Spiritualism: the original religion brought to Dominica was Animism, the
belief that there are many spirits inhabiting the world, which bring good or evil
and are associated with the ancestors such as ancestor spirits. This remains in
some form in the obeah (see below), but even in the adaptation to Christianity
there is still a great reverence for the dead and the ancestors in the importance
of funerals, wakes "nine night" and the annual Fete La Toussaint, to remember
the souls of the dead.
Use of plants and herbal medicines: Tropical plants provided
many uses for the African arrivals. These were used to cure and ease sickness
taken in the form of teas, baths and poultices. Some were used for spiritualist
purposes to ward off evil and as charms.
When studying the African words still used in Dominica we can get an idea of
some of the tribes who came here. Look through the words below and list the
tribal languages from which they come:
Some are:
Fula, Twi, Yoruba, Ibo, Ibibo, Ewe, Akan, Bantu - Kikongo, Nembe,
Wolof.
West African Influence
What is written here applies to Dominica and can be adapted from the wider Caribbean
outlook to relate particularly to Dominica:
The majority of the people of the Caribbean are the descendants of West
Africans originating from a wide range of tribal groups, whose members were
captured along the West African seaboard and from the interior and who were
exchanged for trade goods, enslaved, and transported across the Atlantic to
work on the plantations of the islands and mainland colonies of the circum

3. Caribbean. The cultural variation was as immense as the geographical area from
which these people were drawn. It spread from present-day Senegal in the
north, southwards along the Gulf of Guinea to Angola.
This range included as many as fifty main cultural groups and their numerous
related sub-groupings. The diversity of language reflected this complex merging
of cultures as people whose origin on the coast could be as much as two
thousand miles apart were thrust together in small controlled communities in
the Caribbean. Tribal languages that appear here and there in Caribbean speech
range from Hausa, Kru, Ibo, Edo, Bini, Nembe, Yoruba, Ashanti, Ibibo and Ijo to
Fulani, Ewe, Kikongo, Efik, Kwa, Fon and Twi and a couple dozen others. The
shreds of cultural patrimony transported in the mind across the terrifying waters
of the Middle Passage were pieced together on the shores of the Caribbean into
a patchwork of cultural practices, traditions and skills. Their origins became
blurred, picked up and pinpointed here or there during the twentieth century by
linguists, folklorists and the early anthropologists of the region.
Traces of what was Igbo, Ibo or Ibibo lingered in a word here, a song pattern
there, or a character of the spirit world, whose African roots had survived but
who had acquired a French or Spanish name in the process of Creolization. The
destruction and recreation of the shattered cultures of West Africa in the form of
a variegated collage of influences is the main feature of the African cultural
remnants in the region. For much of the five hundred years, ever since the first
Spanish ship transported the first boatload of Africans direct from the Guinea
coast to Hispaniola in 1518, the validity of this African remnant has been
rejected. For most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries its presence was
seen as a socially negative undercurrent of West Indian society that was better
suppressed, covered up or denied. Only in the latter half of the twentieth
century, during a period of great social and political transformation, did the
African element in Caribbean culture have its renaissance, manifesting itself in
the work of academics, artists, dancers, writers, cultural activists and the
Rastafarian movement.
Stripped of everything but the contents of the mind, the African who arrived in
the Caribbean carried only memory and skills. And yet it was from these
intangible possessions that a new world was recreated, transformed and
reordered. For all of its apparent confusion it was anchored by key lifelines of
cultural security that helped to give stability, aid survival and make sense of a
world gone mad. The plantation system and the regimen of work and mental
stress and personal degradation associated with enslavement did not allow for
the replication of the structured tribally determined patterns of life as had
existed in Africa. Despite their condition they wove these lines of survival
wherever possible into their plantation existence. Spaces of cultural opportunity
were taken advantage of at every available turn. Subterfuge, sarcasm,
innuendo and bitter humour became the antidotes to the circumstances in which
they had found themselves. In folktales, songs and dances these threads were

4. woven, providing a pliable ever-changing mask to the reality that lay beyond.
The scraps of religious beliefs, once rigidly defined from tribe to tribe became a
composite. Some elements were stronger on one island than another depending
on the majority of influence from one group of Africans rather than others. But
there were general themes associated with a spirit world where good and evil
were in contest and whose balance had to be maintained. Spiritual possession
and respect for the ancestors ran through it all in spite of the variations.
The African religions and beliefs were outlawed from the earliest days of
plantation slavery, not merely because they were seen to be pagan, primitive
and generally unchristian but more so because the plantocracy feared these
practices were a cover for revolt. Paranoia against any form of African religious
spiritualism rose sharply after the Haitian revolution, during which messages
and plans of insurrection were passed on during such gatherings. But despite
these restrictions certain forms of traditional religious practices survived under
a blanket of secrecy. Those who professed to control spiritual powers were
respected and there existed a network of shamans whose skills were called
upon to cast spells, make charms and call up the spirit world. They were
consulted for their knowledge of the use of herbs to cure illnesses and destroy
enemies. These ‘ obeah’ men or women were visited for help and advice and
legislation survives on the islands up to today criminalizing obeah and those
associated with the practice.
There is a certain degree of historical continuity in the ceremonies linked to
these religious beliefs. A few are still practiced in the different forms
ofvoodoo that survive in Haiti and in the shango of Trinidad and pocomania of
Jamaica. Voodoo, for instance originated from Dahomey, based on the worship
of the good, poisonless serpent spirit, Dangbay. The priest
orvoodun communicates with this spirit and makes Dangbay’ s will known to
others. Dances such as the Kalenda, Chica and Voodoo are part of these
religious rites where spirit possession accompanied by intense drumming and
chants forms the climax of worship. Transformation has taken place over time
and voodoo has been exported with the Haitian Diaspora to New York, Miami
and other cities in North America. In the tourist enclaves of Haiti itself, voodoo
ceremonies are presented as floorshows and as such have been stripped of all
of their original meaning.
A host of tribal languages were quickly lost as people from one part of West
Africa were mixed with others on the plantations. Soon slaves of each European
colony were speaking their own form of English, French, Spanish or Dutch,
depending from which nation their colonial masters originated. In cases were
islands changed hands regularly between opposing European powers and where
colonists from both Britain and France were resident, as in the case of
Dominica, St. Lucia, and later Trinidad, parallel Creole languages developed in
the same place. Many of the ‘ patois’ or Creole forms of speech still exist. One
can tell which island someone is from by listening to his or her accents.

5. Gradually the old African folk tales were being remodeled and retold in these
new languages. Here and there particular African words or the names of spirits
and folktale characters survive. The spider hero of the Akan people, Ananse,
lives on in the Anansy stories. Tales involving magic and forests and rivers were
also common. But here the spirits had merged with European folklore and had
Europeanized names. One hears of the River Mama or Mama D’ leau, the water
spirit, and the forest spirit Papa Bois. Such characters are common in the
former French colonies along with the Loupgarou a male werewolf and the La
Diabless, the she- devil.
Changes in belief systems over time can be
exemplified by a study of the currently used word,
Jumbie or Duppy as applied to an evil spirit. The
word Jumbie or Jombie originates from a branch
of the Bantu language especially of the kongo-
ngola group in which there is the
good nsambi ‘ God’ and the
evilnsumbi ‘ Devil’ . Carried across from Africa to
Caribbean in various Central and West African
language sub-groups, nsumbibecame Jumbie or
Jombie in its Creole form. Good and evil were
under the same spiritual power constantly tussling
for a balance between the two. Songs and
religious practices celebrated the contest, but over
time only the Jombie, the evil spirit, was
remembered. In early folklore this Jombie could
affect your health while you were asleep at night
or wreck your good fortune. Practitioners of Obeah
were supposed to be able to drive the spirit out or
make it affect others. The Jombie is now largely
used as a bogeyman in stories to frighten children into obedience.
Music traverses language and so it survived more strongly than other art forms.
It was also incorporated into work and periods of festivity and lamenting and so
had a continuity that evolved over time from slavery into freedom and further
into the twentieth century emerging in forms of reggae, calypso, zouk and soca.
Holes for sugar cane planting were dug to chants and the beat of drums. There
were songs of sadness, joy, worship and revolt. Later in the post-emancipation
period hauling of boats, sawing of wood, moving of houses and gathering of
fishing nets was done to song. Much of the music was accompanied by dancing,
some of these like the bele and kalenda had strong African retentions whereas
European dances such as quadrilles, polkas, reels and lancers were given an
African transformation, speeded up and choreographed anew with a flare which
transformed them into something distinctly Caribbean.

6. The tunes for such dances incorporated the fiddle, accordion and banjo with a
variety of drums and percussion instruments, which had their roots in Africa.
Flutes, rattles, ‘ shack-shacks’ , scrapers, tambourines and ‘ bamboo-
tamous’ were among them. Goatskin was stretched across hollow wooden
frames carved from tree trunks and casks from the sugar factories were utilized
to form drums, the tamous or ‘ gro kas’ of the French territories. The Spanish
islands of the Greater Antilles and influences from Venezuela added an Iberian
flavour to African rhythms and were complimented by brass instruments and
guitars and quartos. In the British Caribbean, the island of Trinidad was
particularly influenced by this, transforming the back-up music for its calypsos
and it is even more strongly evident in the ‘ parang, music of certain
communities.
The times of great celebration and festivals were Christmas, Easter, Whitsun
and "Crop-over" when the last canes were brought to the mills for crushing. In
the French influenced colonies, the Roman Catholics celebrated Carnival for two
days before Lent. From this there developed a lively tradition of street bands
with colourful characters dancing and singing in costumes. The songs that
accompanied these revelries often told of some recent scandal or some
momentous event and this custom lives on today in the calypsoes which are
composed and sung during these occasions.
Some African words still used in Dominica
Ackra A small fritter made of flour batter fried in oil, usually with a base of
shredded salted codfish or titiri. Introduced by West Africans. Originates from
the Yoruba word: akara, "an oily cake made
from beans ground and fried."
Bélé A dance performed in Dominica from the
earliest arrival of West Africans to the island. Of
all the folk dances it has the strongest African
roots and has its origins in festivals associated
with mating and fertility. A male and female (in
Creole, the "Cavalier" and the "Dam") display
each other’ s dance skills and hint at their
sexual is in the form of chants led by a
"chantuelle" with the refrain or "lavway" given
by a chorus of spectators. The French adapted
the name of the dance to "Belaire".
Da-da: Nurse or elder female who takes care of a child. It comes from the
West African Ewé language: da-da or da: an elder care taking sister.

7. Doucouna (dukuna): A small pudding made of a variety of mixtures of
grated sweet potatoes, cassava, grated coconut, cornmeal, plantain flour,
spices, sugar and essence, wrapped and tied in a balizier leaf and steamed.
From the West African Akan language: doko na: "sweet mouth" or doko no:
"sweet thing". Also called cankie.
Jombie: An evil spirit. The word originates from a branch of the Bantu
language especially of the kongo-ngola group in which there is the
goodnsambi ‘ God’ and the evil nsumbi ‘ Devil’ . Carried across from Africa
to Dominica in various Central and West African language sub-
groups, nsumbibecame Jumbie or Jombie in its Creole form. Good and evil were
under the same spiritual power constantly tussling for a balance between the
two. Songs and religious practices celebrated the contest, but over time only
the Jombie, the evil spirit, was remembered. In early folklore this Jombie could
affect your health while you were asleep at night or wreck your good fortune.
Practitioners of Obeah were supposed to be able to drive the spirit out or make
it affect others. The Jombie is also used as a bogeyman in stories to frighten
children into obedience.
Okra: A young green pod about 4 to 6 inches long, noticeably ridged and
pointed with slimy seeds and flesh used as a boiled vegetable. It grows on a
flowering shrub with lobed, hand sized leaves: Hibiscus esculentus(Malvaceae).
The plant was brought from Africa and the name is from the Igbo word okworo.
Obeah: A set or system of secret beliefs in the use of supernatural forces to
attain or defend against evil ends. It is African in origin but on its arrival in the
Caribbean certain aspects of Christian ceremonials and sacraments were
integrated into its activities. It varies greatly in kind, requirements, and
practice, ranging from the simple, such as the use of items like oils, herbs,
bones, grave-dirt, blessed communion wafers and fresh animal blood to more
extreme ingredients. Obeah men or Obeah women are names given to its
practitioners. The term Pyai, from the Carib for shaman is also used in Dominica
relating to the casting of spells. Origins for the word Obeah come from the
Twi: o-bayo-fo (witchcraft man). From the Nembe: obi (sickness, disease), and
Igbo: obi (a mind or will to do something) and the Ibibo: abia (practitioner,
herbalist).
One-pot-hold-all: A whole meal cooked in one pot. The practice was
common in West Africa. The Wolof word benacin means "one pot" and "a meal
made by cooking everything together".
Sensay Costume: A costume of West African origin worn at Carnival
time in Dominica. It is made of frayed rope and other fibrous material such as
pounded leaves of the agave, ‘ langue beff’ (Furcraea tuberosa) that grows

8. mainly on the west coast. The material is tied around the body in layers so that
it cascades from the head to the feet. A mask is usually worn on the face and
cow horns form the headpiece. Sensay costumes are also made of strips of
paper, cloth, frayed plastic sacks and dry banana leaves ‘ pai fig’ . They are
similar to costumes used in West African tribal ceremonies. The word comes
from the Twi language, senseh, which is a type of fowl with curled or ruffled
feathers. The costume is named after its resemblance to the fowl, which also
has special spiritual properties among the Twi people.
Su-Su (Sou-Sou): A friendly co-operative savings scheme originating
from Africa whereby each person in a small group contributes every week or
month, as agreed, an equal portion of money. The sum of the group’ s total
contribution goes to one member of the group in rotation, so that every month,
week or fortnight one person benefits from a large sum of money that can be
put to a particular use. It comes from the Yoruba word esusu, meaning: "a fund
were several persons pool their money". In Dominica the practice is more often
called a "sub". Although still used, the system was far more widespread before
banks openly welcomed small-scale savers and before the Credit Union
movement established itself throughout the countryside in the 1950s and
1960s.
Tosh: A small round piece of padding made of a coil of cloth or dried banana
leaves, which is put on top of the head to act as a pad when carrying heavy
loads on the head. Associated with the verb -tuta, -tota: "to carry, pick up,
load" in Kikongo, Ci-Luba and other Bantu languages common to West Africa.
Wawa: A species of wild yam (Rajania sintenisii) found in the forests at
lower and middle elevations and called by the Caribs bihi and kaiarali. But it is
now known by its African name ‘ wawa’ from the Twi language for ‘ large
tree’ in that it is a tree-climbing yam with a widely spreading root system. It
was the main food for the Maroons in their camps in the mountains and was
mentioned in the reports of British governors as being one of the reasons for
their survival. Although it was much used by the Caribs they never cultivated it
because of the belief that if they did so it would cause their family to die out.
Yam: (Dioscorea spp.) A tuberous root of which there are many varieties that
are cultivated and eaten in Dominica and throughout the Caribbean. The word
comes from a variety of West and Central African languages such as Fula and
Twi in which words such as nnyam, nyiama, enama also mean ‘ meat’ ,
‘ food’ and ‘ eat’ . Some of the yams cultivated here were brought from
Africa in sailing ships during the time of the Slave Trade (Old World Yams) while
other yams are indigenous and were used by the Caribs long before the arrival
of Columbus (New World Yams). There are over 600 species of yam in the
tropics, however only ten of these are of any importance as food and there are

9. great variations in the size and shape of yams. In Dominica the African Old
World yams are: the greater yam (Dioscorea alata), the yellow Guinea yam
(Dioscorea cayenensis) known here as yam jaune, the white Guinea yam
(Dioscorea rotundata) yam blanc, and the lesser yam (Dioscorea esculenta).
Among the New World yams are the Cush-Cush (from the Carib, kúsu) and the
Wa-wa (Rajania cordata) a wild yam in the forest. The Creole names for the
different varieties of yam sometimes vary from one part of Dominica to another
and they include names such as: yam d’ leau, yam batard, yam marron, yam a
piquants noir, yam bonda, babaoulay, yam Antoine and lady’ s yam etc. Yam is
generally peeled, cut into chunks and boiled, but is also roasted or pounded in a
‘ mash pilon’ and made into ‘ ton-ton’ or mashed and made into a pie.
Influences in Dress -
head ties, use of colour, jewelry etc.
Douillette (Dwiyet): (F) The traditional costume of Dominica, now
popularly referred to as The National Dress. From the French douillette in its
17th century meaning of "dainty, delicate". It evolved from the African
adaptation of the 17th and the 18th century French colonial gown, the "grande
robe". In its Creolized form it consists principally of a full-length dress of
brightly printed cotton which was cut with a train at the back, thelaché. This
was worn over a lace or embroidered petticoat often decorated with satin
ribbon. A shawl or foulard is laid around the shoulders and an elaborately tied
and starched Madras headkerchief, the tete en lé or tete cassie (from chassie,
the gum used its preparation) forms the head piece. Every form of jewelry,
mainly gold accessories, including necklaces: collier choux and gwais d’ or,
earrings: zanneau chenille, bracelets and brooches with moving
parts: zepingues tremblan is displayed. In former times there were set dress
colours for the various shades of skin tone of the wearers. Different messages
as to the wearers’ marriageal status and availability were encoded in the form
of the head ties.
Later African influences in the 20th
century which was not present before 1838
is: