Grammar for Matric & Intermediate by Muhammad Azam

BASIC GRAMMATICAL TERMS
Adjective: A word which qualifies or modifies the meaning of a noun; as in a 'red hat' or a
'quick fox'. They can be used to complement the verbs 'to be' or 'to seem' ('Sue seems happy
today'). Adjectives are sometimes formed from nouns or verbs by the addition of a suffix such as
'-able' (lovable), '-ful' (heedful), '-ic' (heroic), '-ish' (foolish), '-ive' (combative), '-ous' (famous),
or '-y' (needy).

Adverb: A word which qualifies or adds to the action of a verb: as in 'he ran quickly', or 'he ran
fast'. Adverbs can also qualify adjectives, as in 'the grass is intensely green'. They are usually
formed by adding '-ly' to an adjective: 'playfully', 'combatively', 'foolishly'. They can also
sometimes be formed by the addition of '-wise' to a noun ('the hands went round clockwise).

Clause: The word is often used but very hard to define. It is a sentence or sentence-like
construction included within another sentence. A main clause might be a simple noun plus verb
('I did it'). A co-ordinate clause is of equal status with the main clause: 'I did it and she did it at
the same time.' A subordinate clause might be nested within a sentence using the conjunction
'that': 'he said that the world was flat.' Here 'he said' is the main clause and the subordinate clause
is 'the world was flat'. Relative clauses are usually introduced by a relative pronoun: 'I read the
book which was falling to pieces'; 'She spoke to the man who was standing at the bar.'

Conjunction: A word used to connect words or constructions. Co-ordinating conjunctions
such as 'and', and 'but' link together elements of equal importance in a sentence ('Fish and chips'
are of equal importance). Subordinating conjunctions such as 'because', 'if', 'although', connect
a subordinate clause to its superordinate clause ('We will do it if you insist'; 'We did it because
he insisted).

Noun: A word used as the name or designation of a person or thing, such as 'duck' or 'river'.
Abstract nouns denote abstract properties, such as 'invisibility', 'gentleness'. Proper nouns are
nouns that designate one thing, as, for example, personal names.

Object: Usually the thing to which the action of a verb is done. More technically a substantive
word, phrase, or clause, immediately dependent on, or ‘governed by’, a verb, as expressing, in
the case of a verb of action, the person or thing to which the action is directed, or on which it is
exerted; that which receives the action of the verb. So 'the man patted the dog', 'the woman was
reading the book'. An indirect object of a verb denotes that which is indirectly affected by an
action, but wihch is not the immediate product of it, as ‘Give him the book’, ‘Make me a coat’.

Participle: a word derived from a noun which functions like an adjective, as in 'let sleeping
dogs lie'. More technically 'A word that partakes of the nature of a verb and an adjective; a
derivative of a verb which has the function and construction of an adjective (qualifying a noun),
while retaining some of those of the verb'. Present participles usually end in '-ing' and usually
describe an action which is going on at the same time as the verb: so in the sentence '"Go and
play on your own street," she said, kicking the ball', the saying and the kicking are simultaneous.
Past participles usually end in '-ed' or '-en' ('the door was kicked in'; 'the door was broken').
They are used in two main ways: combined with the verb 'have' they form a past or 'perfect' tense
(so called because it describes an action which has been completed or 'perfected'), as in 'I have
1|Page
MUHAMMAD AZAM, LECTURER, FGSD COLLEGE, WAH CANTT. Ph-03335418018

smashed the plate'. Past participles can also be used in passive constructions (which describe
what was done to something rather than what something did), as in 'the plate was smashed'.

Preposition: A part of speech which indicates a connection, between two other parts of
speech, such as 'to', 'with', 'by' or 'from'. 'She came from China', 'He gave the chocolates to me'.

Pronoun: A part of speech which stands for a noun: 'he', 'she', 'him', 'her', 'them'. Possessive
pronouns express ownership ('his', 'hers'). Reflexive pronouns are 'herself', 'himself', 'myself'
and are used either for emphasis (he did it all himself'), or when an action reflects back on the
agent who performs it ('he shot himself in the foot'). Relative pronouns include 'who', 'which',
'that' and are usually used in the form 'he rebuked the reader who had sung in the library'.
Interrogative pronouns ask questions ('Who stole the pie?'; 'Which pie?'). Indefinite
pronouns do not specify a particular person or thing: 'Anyone who studies grammar must be
mad.' 'Somebody has to know about this stuff.'

Sentence: This is a term which professional linguists still find impossible to define adequately.
It is usually supposed to be 'A sequence of words which makes complete sense, containing
subject, object and main verb, and concluded by a full-stop'.

Subject: Usually the person or thing who is performing the action of a verb. More technically
the grammatical subject is the part of a sentence of which an action is predicated: 'the man patted
the dog'. It can be a single noun, or it can been a complex clause: 'the bald man who had just
picked up the ball gave it to the dog.'

Verb: Usually a word which describes an action (such as 'he reads poems', 'she excels at
cricket'). More technically 'That part of speech by which an assertion is made, or which serves to
connect a subject with a predicate.' This technical definition includes the most frequent verb in
the language: the verb 'to be' which can be used to connect a 'subject', such as 'he', with a
'predicate', such as 'good at hockey'. There are verbs which take an object ('he takes tea'), which
are called transitive verbs. Other verbs do not, and are termed intransitive verbs ('I sit, he
lives'). Some verbs can be used either transitively or intransitively: 'I sing' is an intransitive
usage; 'Paul McCartney sings "God save the Queen"' is a transitive usage. The main verb is the
verb on which the structure of the sentence depends, and without which the sentence would not
make any sense.In the following sentence the verb 'fell' is the main verb: 'The boy, who had run
too quickly, fell'.
INTERJECTION
Interjections are words or phrases used to exclaim or protest or command. They sometimes
stand by themselves, but they are often contained within larger structures.

• Wow! I won the lottery!

• Oh, I don't know about that.

• I don't know what the heck you're talking about.

• No, you shouldn't have done that.

THE NOUN

The name given to a person, place and thing is called a noun. The subject of a sentence is the
noun. Take this sentence, for example:
Michael is a very good name.
The subject of the sentence – who or what the sentence is about – is shown in bold letters. It is
a noun.

TYPES OF NOUNS
NOU

There are many types of nouns.
1. PROPER NOUNS
PROPE
The first letter of a proper noun is written using a capital letter. Proper nouns represent a
particular thing, rather than just a general thing. For instance, people’s names start with a
capital letter, because they represent the name of a particular person. Other common
proper nouns are the days of the week, names of cities, countries, and organisations.
2. COMMON NOUNS
NOUN
The opposite of a proper noun is a common noun. These are nouns that don’t represent
specific people or things, but just people or things in general. For instance, if we were
talking about a fire-fighter named Bob, we could say something like:
Common
Noun
Bob is a good firefighter
Proper
Noun

Because ‘Bob’ refers to a specific person, it is a proper noun and starts with a capital ‘B’.
The noun ‘fire-fighter’, however is a common noun, because it represents people who
fight fires – but not a specific person.
3. CONCRETE NOUNS
Nouns that represent something you can perceive through one of your five physical senses are
known as concrete nouns. These nouns represent something concrete that you can
physically touch or hear, for instance. The five senses are sight, touch, hearing, smell, and
taste. ‘Tree’, ‘door’, ‘cat’, ‘basketball’, and ‘road’ are all examples of concrete nouns.
4. ABSTRACT NOUNS
These are nouns representing things that you can’t perceive through any of your five
senses. Any sentence about emotions usually involves abstract nouns. Here are a couple of
sentences with abstract nouns (in bold font):
There is a lot of love in that relationship. Johnson
had never felt so much hate before.

5. COLLECTIVE NOUNS
COL LEC
These are nouns that represent a group of more than one thing. The collective noun in this
sentence is highlighted in bold font:
3|Page

 My uncle owns a flock of sheep.
One of the most common uses of collective nouns is to describe groups of various types of
animals. Some of the names used to describe groups of animals are very weird. Here are
some of them:

Group name Animals used with

Herd Buffalo, cattle, deer, donkeys, elephants, horses, kangaroos, pigs

Destruction Feral cats

Pod Whales, dolphins, seals

Nest Vipers, snakes

Ambush Tigers

Muster Storks, peacocks

Host Sparrows

Murder Crows

Crash Rhinoceros

Litter Pups, pigs, cubs, dogs, kittens

Shoal Most types of fish

Flock Most types of birds, sheep

Pride Lions

Brood Hens, chickens

Colony Ants, beavers, penguins, frogs, rabbits

Swarm Bees, flies, rats

Convocation Eagles

Kine Cows

Sloth Bears

Culture Bacteria

Shrewdness Apes

6. COMPOUND NOUNS
Compound nouns are nouns made up of two or more words. Some compound nouns are
hyphenated. E.g. Air force, classroom Mother-in-law, Paper-clip etc.

7. POSSESSIVE NOUNS
POSSESSIVE NOU
Possessive nouns and pronouns demonstrate ownership or some similar relationship over something else.
Plural nouns indicate more than one person, place or thing. Possessive nouns typically include an
apostrophe. For example:

• Jennifer’s imagination ran wild as she pictured the accident.
• The kitten’s toy is a stuffed catnip mouse.

5|Page

PRONOUN & TYPES OF PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a word such as we, them, or anyone that replaces a noun or another pronoun. Pronouns
must match the number and gender of the noun they stand for and be in a case (form) that matches its
function. Pronouns have the same functions as nouns: They may act as subjects and subject
complements, direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions. The noun that a pronoun
refers to is called the antecedent of the pronoun. In the sentence “George wrote the essay in class and
typed it later” the noun essay is the antecedent of the pronoun it. If you cannot point to the antecedent of a
pronoun in your writing, you need to change the wording so that your meaning will be clear to the reader.
For more on antecedents as well as number and case agreement, gender bias, and other specific pronoun
issues, see other resources. Here is an explanation of the nine types of pronouns:

A. PERSONAL PRONOUNS: Personal pronouns refer to specific persons, places, or things.

1. Subjective Case: A personal pronoun should be in the subjective case (form) if the pronoun functions
as a subject or subject complement. A subject pronoun usually comes before the verb; a subject
complement pronoun follows a linking verb.

Singular Plural Examples:
First person: I we We are successful. (Subject)
Second person: you you They like pizza. (Subject)
Third person: he/she/it they The winners were Kim and I. (Subject
complement)

2. Objective case: If a pronoun stands for any other noun than a subject or subject complement, use
the objective case. Object pronouns can be direct objects (DO), indirect objects
(IO), or objects of
prepositions (OP). Notice that you and it are in both lists.

First person: me us The secretary notified us today. (DO)
Second person: you you My aunt wrote me a letter. (IO)
Third person: him/her/it them For her, I would do anything. (OP)
B. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS: Possessive pronouns act as adjectives that show ownership.
1. These possessive pronouns act as adjectives showing ownership:

First person: my our My friend found his dog.
Second person: your your Their cat sharpened its claws.
Third person: his/her/its their

Note: Do not confuse the pronoun its with the contraction it’s, which means it is.
2. These possessive pronouns stand for an adjective possessive pronoun plus a noun:
Example: That backpack is mine. (“mine” = “my backpack”)

Singular Plural Example:
First person: mine ours The decision is yours to make.
Second person: yours yours (yours = “your decision”)
Third person: his/hers theirs

C. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS: Indefinite pronouns are noun substitutes that are not specific
(definite) in meaning.

1. Indefinite pronouns fall into two categories:
List 1. Pronouns that refer to a non-specific noun:
anybody, anyone, anything, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody,
none, no one, nothing, somebody, someone, something
Example: Nothing gets accomplished without some effort.

List 2. Pronouns that refer to a specific noun whose meaning is clear only because of a previous
mention or because of words that follow the indefinite pronoun: all, another, any,
both, each, either, few, many, neither, one, some, several.
Examples: Several are planning to fly to New York.
(The identity of the group that is flying to New York would have already been mentioned.)
Do you want some of these books?
(Books makes clear the meaning of some.)

Note: The indefinite pronouns in List 2 function simply as adjectives when they are
are directly followed by nouns.
Examples: Several students received awards.
My mother baked some pies for the picnic.

2. Indefinite pronouns may be singular or plural. The verbs (underlined) must match in number.

another neither
anybody nobody Examples:
anyone no one There are four groups of students,
anything nothing and each has its own assignment.
Singular each one Something unexpected is happening.
either somebody
everybody something
everyone someone
everything

both Examples:
few Both of the documents were signed.
Plural many Many in the audience agree with the speaker.
several

Note: When these indefinite pronouns are followed by a prepositional phrase, the
Pronoun should agree in number with the noun that is the object of the preposition.

Singular all more Examples: Some of the planning is finished.
or Plural any most Some of the apples are ripe.
either
(depending on none Remember that the verb must agree in number with
the noun it some the bolded antecedent. “Planning” takes a
stands for) singular verb and “apples” takes a plural verb.

7|Page

D. RELATIVE PRONOUNS: A relative pronoun connects (relates) an adjective clause or a noun
clause to the rest of the sentence.

1. Relative pronouns that introduce adjective clauses: When a relative pronoun introduces an
adjective clause, the pronoun refers to a noun already mentioned in the main clause of the
sentence.

who whose whom which that

Examples (Adjective clauses are underlined):
The mystery novel that she recently completed will be published next year.
(That refers back to novel and acts as a direct object in the adjective clause.)
Healing is more rapid for patients who have a positive attitude.
(Who refers back to patients and acts as the subject of the adjective clause.)

2. Relative pronouns that introduce noun clauses:

who whom what which whose
whoever whomever whatever whichever that

Within a sentence, a noun clause may function as a subject, complement, appositive, or object of a verb or
preposition. The relative pronoun acts as a subject or object within the noun clause, though the normal
word order may be changed. Note: Who and whoever are used as subject pronouns, and whom and
whomever are used as object pronouns. (Noun clauses are underlined.)

Examples: Whoever uses the kitchen should wash the dishes. (The noun clause is the
subject of the sentence. Whoever is the subject of the noun clause.)
The criminal got what he deserved. (The noun clause is the direct object of the verb got.
Within the noun clause, what is the direct object of the verb deserved, even though it comes
before the verb.)

E. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS: An interrogative pronoun introduces a question.

who whom what which whose
whoever whomever whatever whichever

Notice the similarity of this list to the relative pronoun list. Like relative pronouns,
interrogative pronouns can have different grammatical functions. As in all questions,
the word order may not be normal.

Examples: Whose books are those? (adjective modifying books)
Whom will Mr. Broder select as head of the committee? (direct object of
the verb will select)
In which of his two poems does the author express himself most
effectively? (object of the preposition in)

F. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS: The four demonstrative pronouns point out nouns. They often
act as
1.) adjectives, indicating which person(s), places(s), or thing(s) are being referred to or as
2.) noun substitutes when the noun is understood.

this that these those

Examples: These problems are easy to solve. (adjective modifying problems)
Do you like this wallpaper? (adjective modifying wallpaper)
You like these apples, but I prefer those. (These acts as an adjective modifying
apples; those acts as a pronoun that stands for the noun apples.)

G. INTENSIVE PRONOUNS: Intensive pronouns emphasize nouns or other pronouns. They
immediately follow the noun they emphasize. If an intensive pronoun is omitted, the sentence
will still make sense grammatically.

Singular: myself yourself himself herself itself
Plural: ourselves yourselves themselves

Examples: The bank president himself called to apologize for the error.
(Himself emphasizes president.)
She herself was not as concerned as others were about the problem.
(Herself emphasizes she.)

H. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS: Reflexive pronouns rename subjects of action verbs. They
function as various types of objects. If the reflexive pronoun is omitted, the sentence will
not make sense. Note that the following list is the same as the list of intensive pronouns above.

Singular: myself yourself himself herself itself
Plural: ourselves yourselves themselves

Examples: The logger cut himself with his ax. (direct object of the verb cut)
Kim poured herself a cup of coffee. (indirect object of the verb cut)
The old man was talking loudly to himself. (object of the preposition to)

I. RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS: Reciprocal pronouns refer to individual parts of a preceding
plural noun.
each other one another

Examples: The children waved goodbye to each other as they parted.
The students helped one another study before the test.

*********************************

9|Page

TYPES OF VERBS

You will meet different types of verbs as you learn English grammar. Some people get confused. Don't
be. This page tells you (a) the names of different kinds of verbs and (b) their relationship to each other.

The Verb's Role in a Sentence

Verbs can be divided according to the job they do in a sentence. The grammar-expert's way of saying
this is that we can divide verbs syntactically. These are the divisions and sub-divisions according to
syntax:
 Finite Verbs

 transitive verbs

 intransitive verbs

 linking Verbs

 Non-Finite Verbs

 infinitives

 gerunds

 participles

 present participle

 past participle

 perfect participle

 Helping Verbs (Auxiliaries)

o primary auxiliaries

o modal auxiliaries

Formation of the Verb-Word

We know that verbs are words, just like any other part of speech. The words that represent the verbs
follow different patterns of spelling or sound. Verbs can, therefore, be divided into various kinds
depending upon how they are formed. Grammarians would call this a morphological division.
 regular verbs

 irregular verbs

 compound verbs

 phrasal verbs

Verbs According to Meaning

I have earlier answered the question: what is a verb? There I used this division of verbs according to
meaning to explain what a verb is. Those who know grammar well call this division of verbs a semantic

classification.
 action words (action verbs)

 being

 having

FINITE VERBS

Finite verbs and non-finite verbs are two broad categories of verbs.

Look at these two groups of sentences.

Group A Group B

I am fond of eating mangoes.
I like to sing songs. We are fond of eating mangoes.
We like to sing songs.
You are fond of eating mangoes.
You like to sing songs.
He likes to sing songs. He is fond of eating mangoes.
She likes to sing songs. She is fond of eating mangoes.
Anita likes to sing songs. Antony is fond of eating mangoes.
They like to sing songs. They are fond of eating mangoes.

In sentences in Group A, we have the verbs 'like' and 'sing.' The verb 'like' takes on different forms (like,
likes) in the six sentences in the group. The verb 'sing' has the same unchangeable form 'to sing' in all the
sentences.

So, in group 1, we have one verb which changes and the other which does not change.

In the sentences in Group B, we have a similar thing. We have the verb 'be' in different forms (am, is, are)
and the unchangeable verb form 'eating' of the verb 'eat.'

So in group 2, we have again one changing verb and the other an unchanging verb.

What are Finite Verbs?

The verb 'like' in group A and the verb 'be' in group B are verbs which change. The reason these verbs
change their forms must surely be because of the words I, we, you, he, she, Anita, they...since it is clear
that all other words within the same group of sentences are the same.

These verbs which change according to words I, we, you, he, she, Anita, and they, are called Finite
Verbs. The word 'finite' means 'limited.' Since the words I, we, you, he, etc., can make these verbs
change, the power of these verbs must be limited indeed! This idea will help us to remember what these
verbs are.
What are Non-finite Verbs?

They are verbs which do not change. In group A above, the verb 'to sing' and in group B, the verb 'eating'
are non-finite verbs of two different types. No word in a sentence can impose a change on these verbs. I
suppose, that is why we call them non-finite, which means 'not limited' by other words in a sentence.
11 | P a g e

Verbs of this type are...

 the infinitive,

 the gerund, and

 the participle.

Are Finite Verbs Necessary?

Yes. Every sentence in English needs such a verb. It is an essential part of a sentence. You may find
sentences in which a noun or a pronoun is missing (because it's hidden), but you don't usually find a
sentence in which a finite verb is missing.

What are their types?

They may be transitive, intransitive or linking. In a sentence you can have any one of these types.

What is there to learn about them?

About these verbs we need to understand important things like:
• agreement with the subject;

• tense;

• aspect;

• voice; and

• mood.
We can think of these as properties of the verb or as "rules" which finite verbs obey. They are obedient
and reliable verbs!

Non-finite verbs are the wayward ones. Though they are born in the verb family, the non-finites often act
like nouns, and sometimes like adjectives or adverbs.
TRANSITIVE VERB

A transitive verb is a type of finite verb. A finite verb is considered transitive or intransitive depending
upon its relationship with some other words in the sentence. Another way of saying this is that the
division into transitive and intransitive is based on syntax.
What is a transitive verb?

Look at these sentences.
1. He met her yesterday.

2. She wrote a story last year.

3. Rust destroys iron.
In these sentences, the verbs are the words met, wrote and destroys. In each sentence, you ask the

question , 'met whom/what?' You will get the answers as follows:
• sentence 1 — question: met whom? — answer: her

• sentence 2 — question: wrote what? — answer: story

• sentence 3 — question: destroys what? — answer: iron

(note that we use whom in the questions for human beings and what for things and also for animals.)

The words her, story and iron in the sentences above are called objects in grammar.

A transitive verb is, therefore, a verb which has an object.

What is an object?

An object, we may say, is the aim or purpose or destination or target of a verb's action. In our three
example-sentences above, the verbs met, wrote and destroys have the words her, story and iron as their
targets. These targets are called objects. With a transitive verb, we can expect these objects.

Why do we use the word 'transitive'?

We call these verbs 'transitive' because these verbs have the property of transitivity.

What is transitivity?

To transit means to pass through. Each of the verbs met, wrote and destroys in our examples has its
action conveyed (carried) to the object. We might also say that the action begins with the subject (he, she,
rust in our sentences) and passes through the verb to the object. This property of the verb is transitivity.
Hence we call these verbs transitive.

Understanding these verbs in this way helps us to remember what they are.

Here's a list of transitive verbs.

eat, drink, read, write, play, see, hear, answer, buy, find, love, like, understand, catch, bring, sing, meet,
give, take, get, forget, buy, sell, pay, help.

Here are some of these verbs used in sentences.
Sentence verb object

(a) The teacher answered the question. answered question

(b) My friend bought a house. bought house

(c) The children found the money. found money

(d) Most Indians love cricket. love cricket

(e) Keralites like football. like football

What is an intransitive verb?
13 | P a g e

Simple, I suppose. It is a verb which is not transitive—a verb which does not take an object. Here are
some examples along with some sentences.

walk, jump, sleep, sit, lie, stand, weep, kneel, fall, fly, flow,remain, die, belong, wait, come, go.

(a) We walk to the railway station.
(b) The children jump with joy.
(c) Babies sleep for many hours.
(d) My brother stood there.
(e) Jesus wept.

Some Exceptions

You will often find transitive verbs used intransitively, i.e. without an object.
• They are eating.

• We play in the evening.

• I understand.
At rare times intransitive verbs are used transitively.
 How did you cover all that distance? We walked it. ('walked' has the object 'it' in this sentence)

 I cannot stand such nonsense. ('stand' has the object 'nonsense' in this sentence)
Besides transitive and intransitive verbs, we have linking verbs in the finite verbs family.

What are Non-finite Verbs?

They are verbs which do not change. In group A above, the verb 'to sing' and in group B, the verb 'eating'
are non-finite verbs of two different types. No word in a sentence can impose a change on these verbs. I
suppose, that is why we call them non-finite, which means 'not limited' by other words in a sentence.
Verbs of this type are...

 the infinitive,

 the gerund, and

 the participle.

Are Finite Verbs Necessary?

Yes. Every sentence in English needs such a verb. It is an essential part of a sentence. You may find
sentences in which a noun or a pronoun is missing (because it's hidden), but you don't usually find a
sentence in which a finite verb is missing.

What are their types?

They may be transitive, intransitive or linking. In a sentence you can have any one of these types.

What is there to learn about them?

About these verbs we need to understand important things like:

 agreement with the subject;

 tense;

 aspect;

 voice; and

 mood.
We can think of these as properties of the verb or as "rules" which finite verbs obey. They are obedient
and reliable verbs!

Non-finite verbs are the wayward ones. Though they are born in the verb family, the non-finites often
actlike nouns, and
sometimes like adjectives or adverbs.

15 | P a g e

GERUNDS
A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a gerund,
like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being.
However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun
ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition.

Gerund as subject:

 Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (Traveling is the gerund.)

 The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (The gerund has been
removed.)

Gerund as direct object:

 They do not appreciate my singing. (The gerund is singing.)

 They do not appreciate my assistance. (The gerund has been removed)

Gerund as subject complement:

 My cat's favorite activity is sleeping. (The gerund is sleeping.)

 My cat's favorite food is salmon. (The gerund has been removed.)

Gerund as object of preposition:

 The police arrested him for speeding. (The gerund is speeding.)

 The police arrested him for criminal activity. (The gerund has been removed.)

A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or
noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or
state expressed in the gerund, such as:

• THE GERUND PHRASE FUNCTIONS AS THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE.
Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do.

Finding (gerund)
a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb)

• THE GERUND PHRASE FUNCTIONS AS THE DIRECT OBJECT OF THE VERB
APPRECIATE.
I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity.
my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund)
offering (gerund)
you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund)
this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund)

• The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement.
Newt's favorite tactic has been lying to his constituents.
lying to (gerund)
his constituents (direct object of action expressed in gerund)

• The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for.

You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work.
faking (gerund)
an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)

• The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.
Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy.
Being (gerund)
the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund)

• Points to remember:
1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun.
2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).
3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation.

GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES

Use of the gerund
as the subject of a sentence Buying Rover was a big mistake for BMW.

as the object after certain verbs* Most people enjoy driving.

after certain verbs + prepositions I look forward to hearing from you soon.

after certain adjectives + prepositions He's not very good at managing people.

after certain nouns + prepositions We'll have no difficulty in selling the product.

after verbs of perception (action going on) I saw him staggering down the road towards the pub.

*Verb + gerund: avoid, can't help, deny, dread, enjoy, (can't) face, fancy, feel like. finish, give up,
imagine, keep (on), mind, miss, postpone, practise, put off, resent, risk, spend time, (can't) stand, suggest

Use of the infinitive
a) without to after
 modal auxiliaries We can't raise the prices by more than 5%.
 make and let My boss wouldn't let me leave early. She made me do overtime.
 verbs of perception I saw him open the safe and help himself to the money.
(completed action)
b) with to after
 adjectives I'm sorry, but I'm not ready to go yet.
 certain verbs* She wants to find a job in marketing after she's graduated.
 question words Can you tell me where to park my car?
 the first/last/only Henry Ford was the first to use flow production in a car factory.
 adjectives + for Until then cars had been too expensive for most people to buy.

*Verb + infinitive with to: afford, agree, aim, dare, decide, expect, fail, happen, hope, manage, mean,
offer, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, seem, threaten, want, wish

17 | P a g e

Gerund or infinitive - little difference in meaning
I began to play the piano when I was six. I began playing the piano when I was six.
We must continue to look for new staff. We must continue looking for new staff.

After some verbs (begin, start, continue, like, love, hate, intend and prefer) you can usually use either a
gerund or an infinitive. There is practically no difference in meaning.
Exception: After would/should + like/love, only the infinitive can be used.

GERUND OR INFINITIVE - IMPORTANT DIFFERENCE IN MEANING

 I've stopped smoking. The activity (smoking) stops.

 We stopped to smoke a cigarette. The activity is the reason for
stopping.

 I remember playing with Lego. The activity or event has already
 I'll never forget driving into that brick happened.
wall.
 I regret not learning Latin.
 Remember to take back those library The activity has not yet happened. It
books. can or is/was supposed to be done.
 She forgot to lock the door.
 We regret to say that we are unable to
help you.
 I didn't mean to interrupt. to intend to

 A 7.45 lesson means getting up early. to have as a result/an effect

 They tried giving him penicillin, but it to test something to see if it works
had no effect.
 I tried to lift the crate, but it was too to attempt something difficult
heavy.

**************************

PARTICIPLES

A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. The term verbal
indicates that a participle, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses
action or a state of being. However, since they function as adjectives, participles modify nouns or
pronouns. There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles. Present participles
end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in the words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and
seen.

 The crying baby had a wet diaper.

 Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car.

 The burning log fell off the fire.

 Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.

A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s)
or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or
state expressed in the participle, such as:
Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river.

• The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Jack.
Removing (participle)
his coat (direct object of action expressed in participle)
Delores noticed her cousin walking along the shoreline.

• The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying cousin.
walking (participle)
along the shoreline (prepositional phrase as adverb)
Children introduced to music early develop strong intellectual skills.

• The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying children.
introduced (to) (participle)
music (direct object of action expressed in participle)
early (adverb)
Having been a gymnast, Lynn knew the importance of exercise.

• The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Lynn.
Having been (participle)
a gymnast (subject complement for Lynn, via state of being expressed in participle)
Placement: In order to prevent confusion, a participial phrase must be placed as close to the noun it
modifies as possible, and the noun must be clearly stated.

 Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step. *

 Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a step.

In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or what is performing the action expressed in the
participle carrying. Certainly foot can't be logically understood to function in this way. This situation is an
example of a dangling modifier error since the modifier (the participial phrase) is not modifying any
specific noun in the sentence and is thus left "dangling." Since a person must be doing the carrying for the
sentence to make sense, a noun or pronoun that refers to a person must be in the place immediately after
19 | P a g e

the participial phrase, as in the second sentence.

Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after the phrase.

 Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed.

 Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore muscles.

If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off with commas
only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.

 Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep.

 The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt.

Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas should be used:

 The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special award.

 The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.

If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually precedes the phrase if it modifies
an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase directly follows the word it modifies.
 The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the streets.
(The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.)
 Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence.
(The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.)
Points to remember

1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n (past) that functions as an
adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun.

2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).

3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns or pronouns they modify
as possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be clearly stated.

4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it:

a) comes at the beginning of a sentence

b) interrupts a sentence as a nonessential element

c) comes at the end of a sentence and is separated from the word it modifies.

COMPARATIVES & SUPERLATIVES
We use Comparatives and Superlatives to compare two or more nouns.

The formation of the comparative and superlative depends on the number of syllables in the adjective:

One-syllable Adjectives

To form the comparative, we add -er to the end of the adjective.

To form the superlative, we add -est to the end of the adjective.

Adjective Comparative Superlative

small smaller the smallest

cold colder the coldest

light lighter the lightest

short shorter the shortest

Remember that comparatives are often followed by than.

 London is bigger than Santiago.

 Mike is taller than John but James is the tallest.

Two-syllable Adjectives ending in -Y

To form the comparative, we remove the -y and add -ier to the end of the adjective.

To form the superlative, we remove the -y and add -iest to the end of the adjective.


crazy crazier the craziest

happy happier the happiest

early earlier the earliest

 It was the happiest day of my life.

 My joke was funnier than your one.

Adjectives with Two or more Syllables

For Adjectives with 2 syllables (that don't end in -y) and higher (3, 4 syllables etc), we use more for
comparatives and the most for superlatives.

21 | P a g e


handsome more handsome the most handsome

nervous more nervous the most nervous

enthusiastic more enthusiastic the most enthusiastic

 My girlfriend is more beautiful than yours.

 Alex is more intelligent than you but I am the most intelligent.

Irregular Forms


good better the best

bad worse the worst

far further / farther the furthest / farthest

 I am a better tennis player than you but Marcelo is the best.

 Steve is a worse liar than me but Adrian is the worst.

Note: Further / farther, furthest / farthest are all used for distance.

Only Further / furthest are used to mean 'additional' or 'more advanced'.

 Puerto Montt is further / farther than Valdivia is from here (in Santiago).

 If you require further information, please contact reception.

Remember that the opposites of 'more' and 'most' are 'less' and 'least', respectively.

MUCH - MANY - LOT - FEW
We use these words as quantifiers that come at the start of noun phrases and they tell us something about
quantity.

A lot of vs. Lots of

A lot of and lots of are used to express that there is a large quantity of something.

We use a lot of in positive sentences, negative sentences and questions. This expression can be used with
countable or uncountable nouns.

 There are a lot of dogs in the street. (Countable noun)

 I have a lot of time to answer your questions. (Uncountable noun)

 I saw a lot of people waiting in the queue. (Countable)

 We did have a lot of fun, didn't we? (Uncountable)

We use lots of in positive and negative sentences, however it is more informal. It can be used with
countable or uncountable nouns, and occasionally in questions.

 We have lots of time to catch the plane, lets relax. (Uncountable noun)

 There are lots of people in the queue today. (Countable)

 Oh my, you have spent lots of money on clothes! (Uncountable)

 I have lots of questions. (Countable)

She has a lot of money = She has lots of money
Much vs. Many
• Much and Many are used to express that there is a large quantity of something.

• Much and Many are used in negative sentences and questions.
Many is used with countable nouns
Much is used with uncountable nouns.
 I don't have many CD's in my collection. (Countable noun)
 They don't have much money to buy a present. (Uncountable noun)
 How many brothers do you have? (Countable noun)
 Is there much milk in the fridge? (Uncountable noun)
Note: we don't use Much and Many in positive sentences, we use a lot of or lots of.
I have much money. (Incorrect because the sentence is positive / affirmative)
I have a lot of money. (Correct)
Few vs. Little
We use Few and Little to suggest a small quantity.
Few is used with countable nouns
Little is used with uncountable nouns.
 There are only a few days left until Christmas. (Countable noun)

 There is little hope of finding your wallet. (Uncountable noun)

While Few and Little usually have positive meanings, very few and very little have negative meanings.

 He is sad because he has very few friends. (Countable noun)

23 | P a g e

 They have very little knowledge about politics. (Uncountable noun)

TENSES & USAGE
SIMPLE PRESENT
FORM: [VERB] + s/es in third person
Examples:
• You speak English.
• Do you speak English?
• You do not speak English.
Complete List of Simple Present Forms
USE 1 Repeated Actions

Use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a
hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often happens. It can also be something a
person often forgets or usually does not do.
Examples:
• She does not play tennis.

• The train leaves every morning at 8 AM.
• The train does not leave at 9 AM.
• When does the train usually leave?
• She always forgets her purse.
• He never forgets his wallet.
• Every twelve months, the Earth circles the Sun.
• Does the Sun circle the Earth?
USE 2: Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Present can also indicate the speaker believes that a fact was true before, is true now, and will
be true in the future. It is not important if the speaker is correct about the fact. It is also used to make
generalizations about people or things.

Examples:
• Cats like milk.
• Birds do not like milk.
• California is in America.
• California is not in the United Kingdom.
• Windows are made of glass.
• Windows are not made of wood.
25 | P a g e

• New York is a small city. IT IS NOT IMPORTANT THAT THIS FACT IS UNTRUE.
USE 3: Scheduled Events in the Near Future

Speakers occasionally use Simple Present to talk about scheduled events in the near future. This is most
commonly done when talking about public transportation, but it can be used with other scheduled events
as well.

Examples:
• The train leaves tonight at 6 PM.
• The bus does not arrive at 11 AM, it arrives at 11 PM.
• When do we board the plane?
• The party starts at 8 o'clock.
• When does class begin tomorrow?
USE 4 : Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

Speakers sometimes use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is happening or is not
happening now. This can only be done with Non-Continuous Verbs and certain Mixed Verbs.

Examples:
• I am here now.
• She is not here now.
• He needs help right now.
• He does not need help now.
• He has his passport in his hand.
•
Do you have your passport with you?
ADVERB PLACEMENT
The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still,
just, etc.

Examples:
• You only speak English.
•Do you only speak English?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
• Once a week, Tom cleans the car. ACTIVE
• Once a week, the car is cleaned by Tom. PASSIVE
Present Continuous

FORM
[am/is/are + present participle]

Examples:
• You are watching TV.
• Are you watching TV?
• You are not watching TV.
Complete List of Present Continuous Forms
USE 1 Now

Use the Present Continuous with Normal Verbs to express the idea that something is happening now, at
this very moment. It can also be used to show that something is not happening now.
Examples:
• You are learning English now.

• You are not swimming now.
• Are you sleeping?
• I am sitting.
• I am not standing.
• Is he sitting or standing?
• They are reading their books.
• They are not watching television.
• What are you doing?
• Why aren't you doing your homework?
USE 2 Longer Actions in Progress Now

In English, "now" can mean: this second, today, this month, this year, this century, and so on. Sometimes,
we use the Present Continuous to say that we are in the process of doing a longer action which is in
progress; however, we might not be doing it at this exact second.

Examples: (All of these sentences can be said while eating dinner in a restaurant.)
• I am studying to become a doctor.
• I am not studying to become a dentist.
• I am reading the book Tom Sawyer.
• I am not reading any books right now.
• Are you working on any special projects at work?

27 | P a g e

• Aren't you teaching at the university now?
USE 3 Near Future

Sometimes, speakers use the Present Continuous to indicate that something will or will not happen in the
near future.

Examples:
• I am meeting some friends after work.
• I am not going to the party tonight.
• Is he visiting his parents next weekend?
• Isn't he coming with us tonight?
USE 4 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"

The Present Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly" expresses the idea that something
irritating or shocking often happens. Notice that the meaning is like Simple Present, but with negative
emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly" between "be" and "verb+ing."
Examples:
• She is always coming to class late.

• He is constantly talking. I wish he would shut up.
•I don't like them because they are always complaining.
REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs
It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also,
certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using
Present Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Present.

Examples:
• She is loving this chocolate ice cream. Not Correct
•She loves this chocolate ice cream. Correct
ADVERB PLACEMENT
just, etc.

Examples:
• You are still watching TV.
• Are you still watching TV?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
• Right now, Tom is writing the letter. ACTIVE

• Right now, the letter is being written by Tom. PASSIVE

Present Perfect Tense
The Present Perfect Tense is formed using the following structure:

Affirmative: Subject + Have/Has + Past Participle

Negative: Subject + Haven't/Hasn't + Past Participle

Question: Have/Has + Subject + Past Participle

Affirmative Sentences

Past
Subject Have Rest of the Sentence
Participle

I have studied for the exam.

You have bought a new computer.

He has eaten my chocolate.

Negative Sentences

The contraction of the perfect tense in negative form is:
Have not = Haven't
Has not = Hasn't

Subjec Past
Have Rest of the Sentence
t Participle

I haven't studied for the exam.

You haven't bought a new computer.

He hasn't eaten my chocolate.

Questions

Subjec Past
Have Rest of the Sentence
t Participle

Have I been chosen for the team?

29 | P a g e

Have you bought a new car?

Has he eaten my sandwich?

When do we use the Present Perfect Tense?

1. Unspecified point in the past
I have been to Spain three times.
(At some unspecified time in the past, I went to Spain).
Compare with the simple past:
I went to Spain three times in 2005.
(specified time in the past - the year 2005)
2. An action that occurred in the past, but has a result in the present (now)
We can't find our luggage. Have you seen it?
(The luggage was lost in the past, do you know where it is now?)
3. Talking about general experiences (ever, never)

It usually refers to an event happening at some moment in your life.

• Has she ever tried Chilean wine before? (in her life)

• I've never eaten monkey brains before. (in my life)

4. Events that recently occurred (just)
Do you want to go to a restaurant with me?
No, thanks. I've just eaten lunch. (I recently ate lunch.)
5. Events that have occurred up to now (yet)

• Are Carlos and Rodrigo here? No, they haven't arrived yet. (they're still not here now)

6. Events that occurred before you expected (already)

• I've already graduated from University. (I expected to graduate at a later date.)

7. Events that began in the past and haven’t changed (for, since)
Mike has worked at Woodward for 3 years.
(Mike started working at Woodward 3 years ago and he still works there now.)
Julie has worked at Woodward since September of last year.
(Julie began working at Woodward in September of last year, and that hasn't changed - she still works
here now.)
PRESENT PERFECT

FORM
[has/have + past participle]

Examples:
• You have seen that movie many times.
• Have you seen that movie many times?

• You have not seen that movie many times.
Complete List of Present Perfect Forms
USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now

We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact
time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as:
yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day,
one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once,
many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

Examples:
• I have seen that movie twenty times.
• I think I have met him once before.
• There have been many earthquakes in California.
• People have traveled to the Moon.
• People have not traveled to Mars.
• Have you read the book yet?
• Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.
A: Has there ever been a war in the United States?
B: Yes, there has been a war in the United States.
How Do You Actually Use the Present Perfect?
The concept of "unspecified time" can be very confusing to English learners. It is best to associate Present
Perfect with the following topics:

TOPIC 1 Experience
You can use the Present Perfect to describe your experience. It is like saying, "I have the experience of..."
You can also use this tense to say that you have never had a certain experience. The Present Perfect is
NOT used to describe a specific event.

Examples:
I have been to France.
THIS SENTENCE MEANS THAT YOU HAVE HAD THE EXPERIENCE OF BEING IN FRANCE. MAYBE YOU HAVE BEEN THERE ONCE, OR
SEVERAL TIMES.
I have been to France three times.
YOU CAN ADD THE NUMBER OF TIMES AT THE END OF THE SENTENCE.
I have never been to France.
THIS SENTENCE MEANS THAT YOU HAVE NOT HAD THE EXPERIENCE OF GOING TO FRANCE.
I think I have seen that movie before.
He has never traveled by train.
Joan has studied two foreign languages.
A: Have you ever met him?

31 | P a g e

B: No, I have not met him.
TOPIC 2 Change Over Time
We often use the Present Perfect to talk about change that has happened over a period of time.

Examples:
• You have grown since the last time I saw you.
• The government has become more interested in arts education.
• Japanese has become one of the most popular courses at the university since the Asian studies
program was established.
• My English has really improved since I moved to Australia.
TOPIC 3 Accomplishments
We often use the Present Perfect to list the accomplishments of individuals and humanity. You cannot
mention a specific time.

Examples:
• Man has walked on the Moon.
• Our son has learned how to read.
• Doctors have cured many deadly diseases.
• Scientists have split the atom.
TOPIC 4 An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting
We often use the Present Perfect to say that an action which we expected has not happened. Using the
Present Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the action to happen.

Examples:
• James has not finished his homework yet.
• Susan hasn't mastered Japanese, but she can communicate.
• Bill has still not arrived.
• The rain hasn't stopped.
TOPIC 5 Multiple Actions at Different Times
We also use the Present Perfect to talk about several different actions which have occurred in the past at
different times. Present Perfect suggests the process is not complete and more actions are possible.

Examples:
• The army has attacked that city five times.
• I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this semester.
• We have had many major problems while working on this project.
• She has talked to several specialists about her problem, but nobody knows why she is sick.
Time Expressions with Present Perfect
When we use the Present Perfect it means that something has happened at some point in our lives before
now. Remember, the exact time the action happened is not important.

Sometimes, we want to limit the time we are looking in for an experience. We can do this with
expressions such as: in the last week, in the last year, this week, this month, so far, up to now, etc.

Examples:
• Have you been to Mexico in the last year?

• I have seen that movie six times in the last month.
• They have had three tests in the last week.
• She graduated from university less than three years ago. She has worked for three different
companies so far.
•My car has broken down three times this week.
NOTICE
"Last year" and "in the last year" are very different in meaning. "Last year" means the year before now,
and it is considered a specific time which requires Simple Past. "In the last year" means from 365 days
ago until now. It is not considered a specific time, so it requires Present Perfect.

Examples:
 I went to Mexico last year.
I WENT TO MEXICO IN THE CALENDAR YEAR BEFORE THIS ONE.
 I have been to Mexico in the last year.
I HAVE BEEN TO MEXICO AT LEAST ONCE AT SOME POINT BETWEEN 365 DAYS AGO AND NOW.
USE 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Present Perfect to
show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two
weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect.
Examples:
• I have had a cold for two weeks.

• She has been in England for six months.
• Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little girl.
Although the above use of Present Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-
continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in
this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.
ADVERB PLACEMENT
just, etc.

Examples:
33 | P a g e

• You have only seen that movie one time.
• Have you only seen that movie one time?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
 Many tourists have visited that castle. ACTIVE
 That castle has been visited by many tourists. PASSIVE

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
FORM [has/have + been + present participle]
Examples:
• You have been waiting here for two hours.
• Have you been waiting here for two hours?
• You have not been waiting here for two hours.
Complete List of Present Perfect Continuous Forms
USE 1 Duration from the Past Until Now

We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and has continued up
until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used
with the Present Perfect Continuous.

Examples:
• They have been talking for the last hour.
• She has been working at that company for three years.
• What have you been doing for the last 30 minutes?
• James has been teaching at the university since June.
• We have been waiting here for over two hours!
• Why has Nancy not been taking her medicine for the last three days?
USE 2 Recently, Lately

You can also use the Present Perfect Continuous WITHOUT a duration such as "for two weeks." Without
the duration, the tense has a more general meaning of "lately." We often use the words "lately" or
"recently" to emphasize this meaning.
Examples:
• Recently, I have been feeling really tired.

• She has been watching too much television lately.
• Have you been exercising lately?
• Mary has been feeling a little depressed.

• Lisa has not been practicing her English.
• What have you been doing?
IMPORTANT
Remember that the Present Perfect Continuous has the meaning of "lately" or "recently." If you use the
Present Perfect Continuous in a question such as "Have you been feeling alright?", it can suggest that the
person looks sick or unhealthy. A question such as "Have you been smoking?" can suggest that you smell
the smoke on the person. Using this tense in a question suggests you can see, smell, hear or feel the
results of the action. It is possible to insult someone by using this tense incorrectly.
REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs
Present Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Present Perfect.

Examples:
• Sam has been having his car for two years. Not Correct
•Sam has had his car for two years. Correct
ADVERB PLACEMENT
just, etc.

Examples:
• You have only been waiting here for one hour.
• Have you only been waiting here for one hour?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
• Recently, John has been doing the work. ACTIVE
• Recently, the work has been being done by John. PASSIVE

35 | P a g e

Simple Past
FORM
[VERB+ed] or irregular verbs

Examples:
• You called Debbie.
• Did you call Debbie?
• You did not call Debbie.
Complete List of Simple Past Forms
USE 1 Completed Action in the Past

Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past.
Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in
mind.
Examples:
• I saw a movie yesterday.

• I didn't see a play yesterday.
• Last year, I traveled to Japan.
• Last year, I didn't travel to Korea.
• Did you have dinner last night?
• She washed her car.
• He didn't wash his car.
USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions

We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd,
3rd, 4th, and so on.
Examples:
• I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.

• He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00, and met the others at 10:00.
• Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?
USE 3 Duration in Past

The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past. A duration is a longer
action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc.

Examples:

• I lived in Brazil for two years.
• Shauna studied Japanese for five years.
• They sat at the beach all day.
• They did not stay at the party the entire time.
• We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.
A: How long did you wait for them?
B: We waited for one hour.
USE 4 Habits in the Past

The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in the past. It can have the same
meaning as "used to." To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such
as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc.
Examples:
• I studied French when I was a child.

• He played the violin.
• He didn't play the piano.
• Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid?
• She worked at the movie theater after school.
• They never went to school, they always skipped class.
USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or generalizations which are no longer true. As in
USE 4 above, this use of the Simple Past is quite similar to the expression "used to."
Examples:
• She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing.

• He didn't like tomatoes before.
• Did you live in Texas when you were a kid?
•People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the past.
IMPORTANT When-Clauses Happen First
Clauses are groups of words which have meaning but are often not complete sentences. Some clauses
begin with the word "when" such as "when I dropped my pen..." or "when class began..." These clauses
are called when-clauses, and they are very important. The examples below contain when-clauses.

Examples:
• When I paid her one dollar, she answered my question.
• She answered my question when I paid her one dollar.
When-clauses are important because they always happen first when both clauses are in the Simple Past.
37 | P a g e

Both of the examples above mean the same thing: first, I paid her one dollar, and then, she answered my
question. It is not important whether "when I paid her one dollar" is at the beginning of the sentence or at
the end of the sentence. However, the example below has a different meaning. First, she answered my
question, and then, I paid her one dollar.

Example:
•
I paid her one dollar when she answered my question.
ADVERB PLACEMENT
just, etc.

Examples:
• You just called Debbie.
•Did you just call Debbie?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
• Tom repaired the car. ACTIVE
• The car was repaired by Tom. PASSIVE

Past Continuous Tense
FORM [was/were + present participle]
Examples:
• You were studying when she called.
• Were you studying when she called?
• You were not studying when she called.
USE 1- Interrupted Action in the Past

Use the Past Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted. The interruption is
usually a shorter action in the Simple Past. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an
interruption in time.
Examples:
• I was watching TV when she called.

• When the phone rang, she was writing a letter.
• While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.
• What were you doing when the earthquake started?
• I was listening to my iPod, so I didn't hear the fire alarm.
• You were not listening to me when I told you to turn the oven off.
• While John was sleeping last night, someone stole his car.
• Sammy was waiting for us when we got off the plane.
• While I was writing the email, the computer suddenly went off.
A: What were you doing when you broke your leg?
B: I was snowboarding.
USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption

In USE 1, described above, the Past Continuous is interrupted by a shorter action in the Simple Past.
However, you can also use a specific time as an interruption.
Examples:
• Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.

• At midnight, we were still driving through the desert.
•Yesterday at this time, I was sitting at my desk at work.
IMPORTANT
In the Simple Past, a specific time is used to show when an action began or finished. In the Past
Continuous, a specific time only interrupts the action.

Examples:
Last night at 6 PM, I ate dinner.
39 | P a g e

I STARTED EATING AT 6 PM.
Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.
I STARTED EARLIER; AND AT 6 PM, I WAS IN THE PROCESS OF EATING DINNER.
USE 3 Parallel Actions

When you use the Past Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that both
actions were happening at the same time. The actions are parallel.
Examples:
• I was studying while he was making dinner.

• While Ellen was reading, Tim was watching television.
• Were you listening while he was talking?
• I wasn't paying attention while I was writing the letter, so I made several mistakes.
• What were you doing while you were waiting?
• Thomas wasn't working, and I wasn't working either.
• They were eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.
USE 4 Atmosphere
In English, we often use a series of parallel actions to describe the atmosphere at a particular time in the
past.

Example:
• When I walked into the office, several people were busily typing, some were talking on the
phones, the boss was yelling directions, and customers were waiting to be helped. One
customer was yelling at a secretary and waving his hands. Others were complaining to each
other about the bad service.
USE 5 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"

The Past Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly" expresses the idea that something
irritating or shocking often happened in the past. The concept is very similar to the expression "used to"
but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly" between "be" and
"verb+ing."
Examples:
• She was always coming to class late.

• He was constantly talking. He annoyed everyone.
• I didn't like them because they were always complaining.

While vs. When
Clauses are groups of words which have meaning, but are often not complete sentences. Some clauses
begin with the word "when" such as "when she called" or "when it bit me." Other clauses begin with
"while" such as "while she was sleeping" and "while he was surfing." When you talk about things in the
past, "when" is most often followed by the verb tense Simple Past, whereas "while" is usually followed

by Past Continuous. "While" expresses the idea of "during that time." Study the examples below. They
have similar meanings, but they emphasize different parts of the sentence.

Examples:
• I was studying when she called.
•While I was studying, she called.
REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs
Past Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Past.

Examples:
• Jane was being at my house when you arrived. Not Correct
•Jane was at my house when you arrived. Correct
ADVERB PLACEMENT
just, etc.

Examples:
• You were just studying when she called.
• Were you just studying when she called?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
• The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store. ACTIVE
• The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store. PASSIVE

41 | P a g e

PAST PERFECT
FORM
[had + past participle]

Examples:
• You had studied English before you moved to New York.
• Had you studied English before you moved to New York?
• You had not studied English before you moved to New York.
Complete List of Past Perfect Forms
USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Past

The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also
show that something happened before a specific time in the past.
Examples:
• I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai.

• I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.
• Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several times.
• Had Susan ever studied Thai before she moved to Thailand?
• She only understood the movie because she had read the book.
• Kristine had never been to an opera before last night.
• We were not able to get a hotel room because we had not booked in advance.
A: Had you ever visited the U.S. before your trip in 2006?
B: Yes, I had been to the U.S. once before.
USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Past Perfect to
show that something started in the past and continued up until another action in the past.
Examples:
• We had had that car for ten years before it broke down.

• By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years.
• They felt bad about selling the house because they had owned it for more than forty years.
Although the above use of Past Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous
uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in this way even
though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.
IMPORTANT Specific Times with the Past Perfect

Unlike with the Present Perfect, it is possible to use specific time words or phrases with the Past Perfect.
Although this is possible, it is usually not necessary.

Example:
•
She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.
MOREOVER
If the Past Perfect action did occur at a specific time, the Simple Past can be used instead of the Past
Perfect when "before" or "after" is used in the sentence. The words "before" and "after" actually tell you
what happens first, so the Past Perfect is optional. For this reason, both sentences below are correct.

Examples:
• She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.
•
She visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.
HOWEVER

If the Past Perfect is not referring to an action at a specific time, Past Perfect is not optional. Compare the
examples below. Here Past Perfect is referring to a lack of experience rather than an action at a specific
time. For this reason, Simple Past cannot be used.
Examples:
• She never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska. Not Correct

•
She had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska. Correct
ADVERB PLACEMENT
just, etc.

Examples:
• You had previously studied English before you moved to New York.
•Had you previously studied English before you moved to New York?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
• George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic's license. ACTIVE
• Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic's license. PASSIVE
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
FORM [had been + present participle]
Examples:
• You had been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.
• Had you been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived?
43 | P a g e

• You had not been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.
Complete List of Past Perfect Continuous Forms
USE 1- Duration Before Something in the Past

We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and continued up until
another time in the past. "For five minutes" and "for two weeks" are both durations which can be used
with the Past Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous; however,
the duration does not continue until now, it stops before something else in the past.
Examples:
• They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived.

• She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business.
• How long had you been waiting to get on the bus?
• Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day at work.
• James had been teaching at the university for more than a year before he left for Asia.
• A: How long had you been studying Turkish before you moved to Ankara?
B: I had not been studying Turkish very long.
USE 2 -Cause of Something in the Past

Using the Past Perfect Continuous before another action in the past is a good way to show cause and
effect.
Examples:
• Jason was tired because he had been jogging.

• Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.
• Betty failed the final test because she had not been attending class.

PAST CONTINUOUS VS. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
If you do not include a duration such as "for five minutes," "for two weeks" or "since Friday," many
English speakers choose to use the Past Continuous rather than the Past Perfect Continuous. Be careful
because this can change the meaning of the sentence. Past Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions,
whereas Past Perfect Continuous emphasizes a duration of time before something in the past. Study the
examples below to understand the difference.

Examples:
He was tired because he was exercising so hard.
THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WAS TIRED BECAUSE HE WAS EXERCISING AT THAT EXACT MOMENT.
He was tired because he had been exercising so hard.
THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WAS TIRED BECAUSE HE HAD BEEN EXERCISING OVER A PERIOD OF TIME. IT IS POSSIBLE
THAT HE WAS STILL EXERCISING AT THAT MOMENT OR THAT HE HAD JUST FINISHED.
REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs

Past Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Past Perfect.

Examples:
• The motorcycle had been belonging to George for years before Tina bought it. Not Correct
•The motorcycle had belonged to George for years before Tina bought it. Correct
ADVERB PLACEMENT
just, etc.

Examples:
• You had only been waiting there for a few minutes when she arrived.
• Had you only been waiting there for a few minutes when she arrived?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
• Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he
moved to Paris. ACTIVE
• The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before
he moved to Paris. PASSIVE
• NOTE: Passive forms of the Past Perfect Continuous are not common.

45 | P a g e

SIMPLE FUTURE

Simple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and "be going to." Although the two forms can
sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings. These different
meanings might seem too abstract at first, but with time and practice, the differences will become clear.
Both "will" and "be going to" refer to a specific time in the future.

FORM Will
[will + verb]

Examples:
• You will help him later.
• Will you help him later?
•You will not help him later.
FORM Be Going To
[am/is/are + going to + verb]

Examples:
• You are going to meet Jane tonight.
• Are you going to meet Jane tonight?
• You are not going to meet Jane tonight.
Complete List of Simple Future Forms
USE 1 "Will" to Express a Voluntary Action
"Will" often suggests that a speaker will do something voluntarily. A voluntary action is one the speaker
offers to do for someone else. Often, we use "will" to respond to someone else's complaint or request for
help. We also use "will" when we request that someone help us or volunteer to do something for us.
Similarly, we use "will not" or "won't" when we refuse to voluntarily do something.

Examples:
• I will send you the information when I get it.
• I will translate the email, so Mr. Smith can read it.
• Will you help me move this heavy table?
• Will you make dinner?
• I will not do your homework for you.
• I won't do all the housework myself!
• A: I'm really hungry.
B: I'll make some sandwiches.
• A: I'm so tired. I'm about to fall asleep.
B: I'll get you some coffee.

• A: The phone is ringing.
B: I'll get it.
USE 2 "Will" to Express a Promise
"Will" is usually used in promises.

Examples:
• I will call you when I arrive.
• If I am elected President of the United States, I will make sure everyone has access to
inexpensive health insurance.
• I promise I will not tell him about the surprise party.
• Don't worry, I'll be careful.
• I won't tell anyone your secret.
USE 3 "Be going to" to Express a Plan
"Be going to" expresses that something is a plan. It expresses the idea that a person intends to do
something in the future. It does not matter whether the plan is realistic or not.

Examples:
• He is going to spend his vacation in Hawaii.
• She is not going to spend her vacation in Hawaii.
• A: When are we going to meet each other tonight?
B: We are going to meet at 6 PM.
• I'm going to be an actor when I grow up.
• Michelle is going to begin medical school next year.
• They are going to drive all the way to Alaska.
• Who are you going to invite to the party?
• A: Who is going to make John's birthday cake?
B: Sue is going to make John's birthday cake.
USE 4 "Will" or "Be Going to" to Express a Prediction
Both "will" and "be going to" can express the idea of a general prediction about the future. Predictions are
guesses about what might happen in the future. In "prediction" sentences, the subject usually has little
control over the future and therefore USES 1-3 do not apply. In the following examples, there is no
difference in meaning.

Examples:
• The year 2222 will be a very interesting year.
• The year 2222 is going to be a very interesting year.
• John Smith will be the next President.
• John Smith is going to be the next President.
• The movie "Zenith" will win several Academy Awards.
• The movie "Zenith" is going to win several Academy Awards.
47 | P a g e

IMPORTANT
In the Simple Future, it is not always clear which USE the speaker has in mind. Often, there is more than
one way to interpret a sentence's meaning.
No Future in Time Clauses
Like all future forms, the Simple Future cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such
as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Simple Future, Simple
Present is used.

Examples:
• When you will arrive tonight, we will go out for dinner. Not Correct
•
When you arrive tonight, we will go out for dinner. Correct
ADVERB PLACEMENT
just, etc.

Examples:
• You will never help him.
• Will you ever help him?
• You are never going to meet Jane.
•Are you ever going to meet Jane?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
• John will finish the work by 5:00 PM. ACTIVE
• The work will be finished by 5:00 PM. PASSIVE
• Sally is going to make a beautiful dinner tonight. ACTIVE
• A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally tonight. PASSIVE
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
Future Continuous has two different forms: "will be doing " and "be going to be doing." Unlike Simple
Future forms, Future Continuous forms are usually interchangeable.
FORM Future Continuous with "Will"
[will be + present participle]

Examples:
• You will be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.
• Will you be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight?
•You will not be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.
FORM Future Continuous with "Be Going To "
[am/is/are + going to be + present participle]

Examples:
• You are going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.

• Are you going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight?
• You are not going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.
REMEMBER: It is possible to use either "will" or "be going to" to create the Future Continuous with
little difference in meaning.
Complete List of Future Continuous Forms
USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Future

Use the Future Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the future will be interrupted by a shorter
action in the future. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time.

Examples:
• I will be watching TV when she arrives tonight.
• I will be waiting for you when your bus arrives.
• I am going to be staying at the Madison Hotel, if anything happens and you need to contact
me.
• He will be studying at the library tonight, so he will not see Jennifer when she arrives.
Notice in the examples above that the interruptions (marked in italics) are in Simple Present rather than
Simple Future. This is because the interruptions are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in
time clauses.
USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption in the Future

In USE 1, described above, the Future Continuous is interrupted by a short action in the future. In
addition to using short actions as interruptions, you can also use a specific time as an interruption.

Examples:
• Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner.
I WILL BE IN THE PROCESS OF EATING DINNER.
•
At midnight tonight, we will still be driving through the desert.
WE WILL BE IN THE PROCESS OF DRIVING THROUGH THE DESERT.
REMEMBER
In the Simple Future, a specific time is used to show the time an action will begin or end. In the Future
Continuous, a specific time interrupts the action.

Examples:
• Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to eat dinner.
I AM GOING TO START EATING AT 6 PM.
• Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner.
I AM GOING TO START EARLIER AND I WILL BE IN THE PROCESS OF EATING DINNER AT 6 PM.
USE 3 Parallel Actions in the Future
49 | P a g e

Grammar for Matric & Intermediate by Muhammad Azam

Grammar for Matric & Intermediate by Muhammad Azam

Recomendados

Recomendados

Mais conteúdo relacionado

Mais procurados

Mais procurados (20)

Destaque

Destaque (20)

Semelhante a Grammar for Matric & Intermediate by Muhammad Azam

Semelhante a Grammar for Matric & Intermediate by Muhammad Azam (20)

Mais de MUHAMMAD AZAM, VICE PRINCIPAL IMSB G-6/4, ISLAMABAD

Mais de MUHAMMAD AZAM, VICE PRINCIPAL IMSB G-6/4, ISLAMABAD (15)

Último

Último (20)

Grammar for Matric & Intermediate by Muhammad Azam