The document discusses the draining of the Mesopotamian Marshlands in Iraq between the 1950s and 1990s. This draining was initially to reclaim land for agriculture and oil but was later accelerated under Saddam Hussein to displace rebellious residents. It turned the vast wetlands into desert, devastating the environment and economy. Restoration efforts since 2003 aim to replenish the marshes through re-flooding, but full recovery will require sustained local and international support.

1. Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshlands in Iraq –
Impacts and Solutions
Mazin Khosho
Master of Project Management Program
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
McCormick School of Engineering and Applied Science
Northwestern University
Evanston, Illinois
May 12, 2014

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3. i
Abstract
The Mesopotamian Marshlands in Iraq and Iran were drained between the 1950s and
1990s to reclaim the land for agriculture and oil while persecuting rebellious residents. The
project was an environmental and economic disaster. Now the Iraq Marshlands Restoration
Program, with help from the Ministry of Water Resources in Iraq, is trying to restore the area.
Key words: Iraq Marshes, Mesopotamian Marshlands, wetlands in middle east, restoration of
Iraq Marshes, Environmental disaster in Iraq, ecosystem impacted in Iraq Marshes, Tigris and
Euphrates, Iraq National Park, UNEP, Iraq Marshlands Restoration Program.

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Executive Summary
During the late 1980s and beginning of the 1990s, the Iraqi government constructed the
Glory Canal to drain the extensive marshes (mainly the Central, Hammar, and Hawizeh
Marshes) in the lower reaches of the alluvial plain, partly to reclaim the land for oil and
agriculture and partly to pursue people who resisted the central government. This was an
environmental and economic disaster that changed the water circulation, ecosystem,
demographics, and wildlife patterns over a wide area, turning what used to be one of the most
extensive wetlands in the world into a desert and, according to one report, “an environmental and
humanitarian catastrophe of monumental proportions” (Cole, 2008).
Marsh restoration started in 2003 by the region’s people; it must be part of an integrated
plan for the region, which takes account of other land use sectors and economic activities. The
extent and impact of the re-flooding remain largely unknown. This activity seeks to provide an
assessment of where the re-flooding occurred, how it shifts over time, and what are the
ecological responses, which result from newly increased flows in terms of water, soil, vegetation,
wildlife, society, and economy.
Regaining the marshes' ecological balance and biological diversity will be no easy matter
and will require concerted local and international efforts. The efforts to declare this unique
landscape a park and protected area began in 2006; the Iraqi Council of Ministers approved the
designation on July 23, 2013. The Central Marshes of Iraq have now been declared the country’s
first national park. This declaration will support the Iraqi Government to take this environmental
issue to a higher level, and using all available global efforts, and provide protection to this area
and prevent any aggressive behavior that could happen in the future against the marshlands
region.

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Table of Contents
Abstract..........................................................................................................................................................i
Executive Summary....................................................................................................................................... ii
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................1
2. Background of Iraq....................................................................................................................................3
2.1. Location, Area, and Population..........................................................................................................3
2.2. Geography and Climate .....................................................................................................................4
2.3. Water resources.................................................................................................................................4
2.4. Economics and Land Use....................................................................................................................5
3. Geography of Marshlands.........................................................................................................................6
3.1. The Main Marshes: an Overview .......................................................................................................6
3.2. The Central Marshes..........................................................................................................................8
3.3. The Hammar Marshes........................................................................................................................9
3.4. The Hawizeh Marshes......................................................................................................................10
4. The Marsh Arabs.....................................................................................................................................11
5. History of the Draining Issue (1950’s-2003)............................................................................................13
5.1. Purpose of draining..........................................................................................................................13
5.2. Marshlands Situation in 2003 ..........................................................................................................15
6. Impact of the Draining ............................................................................................................................16
6.1. Ecological Impact .............................................................................................................................16
6.2. Economical Impact...........................................................................................................................18
6.3. Demographic Impact........................................................................................................................18
7. Solutions..................................................................................................................................................19
7.1. Current solution / Re- flooding........................................................................................................19
7.2. Future plan/ Iraq Marshlands Restoration Program (IMRP)............................................................20
7.2.1. Design a strategic and comprehensive marshlands plan..........................................................20
7.2.2. Develop a hydrologic and hydraulic model ..............................................................................21
7.2.3. Re-establish livestock and dairy production.............................................................................22
8. Conclusions .............................................................................................................................................23

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References ..................................................................................................................................................24
List of Figures
Figure 1: Map of Iraq...................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 2: Iraq - Total renewable water resources per capita........................................................... 5
Figure 3: Southern Iraq Marshes..................................................................................................... 6
Figure 4: Satellite image of the Mesopotamian marshland ............................................................ 7
Figure 5: Iraq's Marshes the formal area......................................................................................... 9
Figure 6: Aerial view of a Ma'dan "Marsh Arab" floating village near Nasiriya......................... 11
Figure 7: Inside al-mudhif, made of dried reeds, where men gathered ........................................ 12
Figure 8: Boats used to travel between the villages in Marshland ............................................... 12
Figure 9: The Destruction of Iraq's Southern Marshes................................................................. 14
Figure 10: The Mesopotamia Marshland; Demise and the impending rebirth of ecosystem ....... 15
Figure 11: The Central Marsh; Comparison shows the water level and vegetation ..................... 17
Figure 12: The Iraq's Marshes restoration Project in the Hammar Marsh; main outfall drains ... 19

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8. 1
Introduction
The Mesopotamian Marshes or Iraqi Marshes are a wetland area located in southern Iraq
and partially in southwestern Iran and Kuwait (World Wide Fund for Nature [WWF], 2013).
Historically the marshlands, mainly composed of the separate but adjacent Central, Hawizeh and
Hammar Marshes, used to be the largest wetland ecosystem of Western Eurasia (WWF, 2013). It
is a rare aquatic landscape in the desert, providing habitat for the Marsh Arabs and important
populations of wildlife. Farming arose early because the area had a great quantity of wild wheat
and pulse species that were nutritious and easy to domesticate (Brown & Robert, 2006).
The marshes had for some time been considered a refuge for elements persecuted by the
government of Saddam Hussein, as in past centuries they had been a refuge for escaped slaves
and serfs, such as during the Zanj Rebellion. The area was formerly populated by the Marsh
Arabs or Ma'dan, who grazed buffalo on the natural vegetation and carried out cultivation of rice.
By the mid 1980s, a low-level insurgency against Ba'athist drainage and resettlement projects
had developed in the area, led by Sheik Abdul Kerim Mahud al-Muhammadawi of the Al bu
Muhammad under the nom de guerre Abu Hatim (“Juan Cole.” 2008).
Draining of portions of the marshes began in the 1950s and continued through the 1970s
to reclaim land for agriculture and oil exploration. However, in the late 1980s and 1990s, during
the presidency of Saddam Hussein, this work was expanded and accelerated to evict rebellious
people from the marshes. Before 2003, the marshes were drained to 10% of their original size
(Richardson & Hussain, 2006). After the fall of Saddam's regime in 2003, the marshes have
partially recovered but drought along with upstream dam construction and operation in Turkey,
Syria and Iran have hindered the process (BBC News, Aug. 24th
, 2005).

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All three of the main sub-marshes, Al-Hawizeh, Central, and Al-Hammar Marshes were
drained at different times for different reasons. Initial draining of the Central Marshes was
intended to reclaim land for agriculture but later in the 1990s after Gulf War1 (The United
Nations Environmental Program (UNEP, 2001), the draining of all three marshes became a tool
of war and revenge as Saddam Hussein accelerated the draining of the Central and Hammar
marshes in order to evict the rebellious citizens who took refuge in the marshes. The plan, which
was accompanied by a series of propaganda articles by the Iraqi regime directed against the
Ma'dan, (Fisk, 2005) systematically converted the wetlands into a desert, forcing the residents
out of their settlements in the region. Villages in the marshes were attacked and burnt down and
there were reports of the water being deliberately poisoned (UNEP Report, 2011). The AMAR
International Charitable Foundation described the event as "an environmental and humanitarian
catastrophe of monumental proportions with regional and global implications (Cole. 2008).
The purpose of this report is first to bring attention to what has been called the biggest
environmental issue of the 20th century created by human beings, and second to discuss the
impacts of drastically altering nature. According to a UNEP report (2001), “The United Nations
Environmental Program called this action the worst environmental disaster of the last century.”
The report will discuss the history of this issue, how the drainage became a disaster for about
140,000 of marshland people (ROJAS-BURKE. J. 2003), demographically, economically, and
culturally; and how it affected the ecosystem of the marsh region and surrounding regions.
The restoration of the marshlands started after Gulf War ll in 2003. The report will
discuss what actions have been taken, how the restoration of these wetlands can be improved and
what is the future plan could be for this Iraqi’s unique region.

10. 3
2. Background of Iraq
To understand the importance of marshlands, it is important to understand Iraq’s location
and geography, and to understand what renewable water and natural resources that Iraq has.
2.1. Location, Area, and Population
Iraq is located in western Asia and shares borders with Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Saudi
Arabia and Syria (see Figure 1). It has a very small coastline of just 36 miles (58 km) along the
Persian Gulf. Iraq's capital and largest city is Baghdad with total population of 30,399,572
(Briney. 2012). Other large cities in Iraq include Mosul, Basra, Irbil and Kirkuk (Figure 1). The
country’s total area is 169,235 square miles (438,317 sq km). Including 165,650 square miles of
land and 4,220 square miles of water (2.6%), and the country's population density is 179.6
people per square mile or 69.3 people per square kilometer (Briney. 2012).
Figure 1: Map of Iraq (CIA Factbook, 2013)

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2.2. Geography and Climate
The topography of Iraq varies and consists of large desert plains as well as rugged
mountainous regions along its northern borders with Turkey and Iran and low elevation marshes
along its southern borders. The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers also run through the center of Iraq
and flow from the northwest to the southeast (Briney. 2012).
The climate of Iraq is mostly deserted and as such it has mild winters and hot summers.
The country's mountainous regions however have very cold winters and mild summers. Average
temperatures in Iraq range from higher than 38 °C (100.4 °F) in July and August to below
freezing in January. Most of the rainfall occurs from December through April and averages
between 100 and 180 millimeters (3.9 and 7.1 in) annually. The mountainous region of northern
Iraq receives appreciably more precipitation than the central or southern desert region (Briney.
2012).
2.3. Water resources
The waters of the Tigris and Euphrates are essential to the life of the country, but they
sometimes threaten it. The rivers are at their lowest level in September and October and at flood
level in March, April, and May when they may carry forty times as much water as at low mark.
Since the 1990’s Iraq has had a water resource problem, as Turkey and Syria have constructed
dams on Tigris and Euphrates which caused a reversal in water levels and reduced the quantity of
water that Iraq receives. Also the population growth in Iraq makes the situation more difficult.
According to the CIA World Factbook (2012) the total renewable water resources per capita
decreased from 11,500 K [m3/ Inhab/ yr] in 1962 to 2,751K [m3/ Inhab/ yr] in 2012), ( see
Figure 2).

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Figure 2: Iraq – Total renewable water resources per capita (CIA Factbook, 2012)
2.4. Economics and Land Use
Iraq's economy is currently growing and is dependent on the development of its oil
reserves. The main industries in the country today are petroleum, chemicals, textiles, leather,
construction materials, food processing, fertilizer and metal fabrication and processing.
Agriculture also plays a role in Iraq's economy and the major products of that industry are wheat,
barley, rice, vegetables, dates, cotton, cattle, sheep and poultry (“Amanda Briney.” 2012).
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
1962 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012
Total renewable water resources per capita (actual)
(m3/inhab/yr) - Iraq
Figure 2: Iraq - Total renewable water resources per capita (CIA Factbook, 2012)

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3. Geography of Marshlands
3.1. The Main Marshes: and Overview
The Mesopotamian Marshes were located in the larger region which used to be called
Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia, meaning "in between rivers," is now occupied by modern Iraq,
eastern Syria, south-eastern Turkey, and southwest Iran. The marshes lie mostly within southern
Iraq and a portion of southwestern Iran. Originally covering an area of 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi)
and divided into three major areas, the Central Marshes lay between the Tigris and Euphrates,
while the Hammar Marshes lay south of the Euphrates and the Hawizeh Marshes were bound
east of the Tigris (Alwash, Alwash, and Cattarossi, 2004), (see Figure 3 and 4).
Figure 3: Southern Iraq Marshes (Images courtesy Hassan Partow, UNEP; animation by Lori
Perkins, NASA GSFC, based on data from the Landsat 7 science team, 1973-1976)

14. 7
The marshes lay on a flat alluvial plain, as the Euphrates decreases only 12 m (39 ft) in
elevation during its last 300 km (190 mi) while the Tigris falls 24 m (79 ft). This delta provided
an environment that allowed the Tigris and Euphrates to often meander along, forming
distributaries. The Euphrates often terminated near Nasiriyah City into the Hammar Marshes as it
flowed slowly. The Tigris could distribute some of its flow into the Central and Hawizeh
marshes as it slowed near Amarah City. Downstream of Amarah though, several of its tributaries
originating in Iran allowed the Tigris’ flow to increase and maintain a steady course thereafter.
The three marshes combined once provided an intertwined environment, particularly during
periods of flooding as the rivers overflowed (Alwash, Alwash, and Cattarossi. 2004).
Figure 4: Satellite image of the Mesopotamian marshland (NASA, 1989)
Historically, the marshlands constituted a chain of almost interconnected marsh and lake
complexes that flowed into one another (Iraq Foundation, 2003). During periods of high floods,

15. 8
large tracts of desert were under water. Consequently, some of the formerly separate marsh units
merged together, forming larger wetland complexes. The wetlands themselves were made up of a
mosaic of permanent and seasonal marshes, shallow and deep-water lakes, and mudflats that
were regularly inundated during periods of elevated water levels. The highly graded ecotonal
environment has given rise to an array of diverse habitats and environmental conditions (Iraq
Foundation, 2003) (see Figure 5).
The core of the marshes was centered in the area around the confluence of the Tigris and
Euphrates. It is typically divided into the three major areas: the Hammar, south of the Euphrates;
the Central Marshes between the Twin Rivers; and the Haweizah Marshes east of the Tigris
River. The following discussion of the nature and extent of the marshes is based upon conditions
existing prior to 1990.
3.2. The Central Marshes
The Central Marshes received water from influxes of the Tigris's distributaries, namely
the Shatt al-Muminah and Majar-al-Kabir south of Amarah. The Tigris serves as the marshes'
eastern boundary while the Euphrates serves as its southern boundary (see Figure 5). Covering
an area of 3,000 sq km (1,200 sq mi), the marshes consisted of reed beds and several permanent
lakes including Umm al Binni Lake. The Al-Zikri and Hawr Umm Al-Binni Lakes were two of
the notable lakes, located around the center of the marsh, and were approximately 3 meters
(9.8 ft) deep, and an average of one km in diameter (Alwash, Alwash, and Cattarossi. 2004).
These were freshwater lakes, with chemical precipitation of calcareous sediment along with
terrigenous material. The waters of the marshes were clear. Along the marsh’s northern fringes,
dense networks of distributaries, forming deltas, were the sites of extensive rice cultivation. (Iraq
Foundation, 2003)

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Figure 5: Iraq's Marshes the formal area (Galli Ingegneria, 1976)
3.3. The Hammar Marshes
The Hammar Marshes were primarily fed by the Euphrates and lay south of it with a
western face extending to Nasiriyah City (Alwash, Alwash, and Cattarossi. 2004), the eastern
border going to the Shatt al-Arab, and the southern edge extending to Basrah City (see Figure 5).
Normally the marshes were a 2,800 sq km (1,100 sq mi) area of permanent marsh and lake but
during a period of flooding could extend to 4,500 sq km (1,700 sq mi). During periods of
seasonal and temporary inundation, water from the Central Marsh (Iraq Foundation, 2003), fed
by the Tigris, could overflow and supply the marshes with more water. Hammar Lake was the
largest water body within the marsh; it was approximately 120 km (75 mi) long and 25 km

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(16 mi) width, with depths that range from 1.8 meters (5.9 ft) to 3 meters (9.8 ft). The lake was
oxygen-deprived and brackish. Sediments within the lake were gray calcareous silts. During the
summer, large portions of the shoreline dried out, and banks and islands emerged which were
used for agriculture. The lake was surrounded on the north and northeast by freshwater marshes
characterized by more terrigenous and organic-rich sediment and extensive reed beds (Iraq
Foundation, 2003).
3.4. The Hawizeh Marshes
The Hawizeh Marshes lay east of the Tigris and a portion lies in Iran. The Iranian side of
the marshes, known as Hawr Al-Azim, are fed by the Karkheh River, while the Tigris
distributaries Al-Musharrah and Al-Kahla supplied the Iraqi side, only with much less water than
the Karkheh (see Figure 5). During spring flooding, the Tigris at times flowed directly into the
marshes. The marshes were drained naturally by the Al-Kassarah. This river played a critical role
in maintaining the Al-Hawizeh marshes as a flow-through system and preventing it from
becoming a closed saline basin (Richardson, Hussain, Alwash & Pool, 2005).
The marshes were 80 km (50 mi) from north to south and about 30 km (19 mi) from east
to west, covering a total area of 3,000 sq km (1,200 sq mi). Permanent portions of the marshes
included the northern and central portions while the southern part was generally seasonal.
Moderately dense vegetation could be found in the permanent areas along with large 6 meters
(20 ft) - deep lakes in the northern portions (Alwash et al., 2004). As the Hawizeh Marshes fared
the best during the natural draining, they facilitated the reproduction of flora, fauna and other
species in Central and Hammar marshes (Richardson et al., 2005).

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4. The Marsh Arabs
The Marsh Arabs are the primary inhabitants of the Mesopotamian Marshes and are the
descendants of ancient Sumerians, as their civilization dates back 5000 years. They live in
secluded villages of elaborate reed houses throughout the marshes (see Figures 6, 7 and 8), often
reached only by boat. Fish, rice cultivation, water buffalo and other resources are also used in
their daily lives. In the 1950s, there were an estimated 500,000 Marsh Arabs. This population
shrank to about 20,000 following the artificial draining and Saddam's violent reprisals, and
between 80,000 and 120,000 fled to neighboring Iran (ROJAS-BURKE, J. 2003). Following the
2003 Iraq invasion, Marsh Arabs began to return to the marshes.
Figure 6: Aerial view of a Ma'dan "Marsh Arab" floating village near Nasiriya (Wheeler, 1974)

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Figure 7: Inside al-mudhif, made of dried reeds, where men gathered (Wheeler, 1974)
Figure 8: Boats used to travel between the villages in Marshland (Wheeler, 1974)

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5. History of the Draining Issue (1950s-2003)
5.1. Purpose of draining
The draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes began in the 1950s with the Central Marshes
and gradually accelerated as it affected the two other main marshes until early in the 21st century
with the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The draining of the marshes was intended at first to reclaim land
for agriculture along with oil exploration, but later served as a punishment for Shia Arabs in
response to the 1991 uprisings in Iraq. The draining of the marshes was largely done by dams,
dykes and other diversion structures constructed in Iraq but were exacerbated by upstream dam
construction in Syria and Turkey (UNEP, 2011).
While the British engineers were working with the Iraqi government, Frank Haigh
developed the Haigh Report in 1951, explaining the draining of the marshes. His report
recommended a complex of canals, sluices and dykes on the lower portions of both the Tigris
and Euphrates. These water control structures could be used to drain marshes therefore creating
profitable farmland. In 1953, construction began on the Third River or Main Outfall Drain and
later the Saddam River which would drain water from the Central Marsh under the Euphrates
and through a canal eventually into the Persian Gulf (UNEP, 2003). Work on the Third River and
other draining projects, particularly for the Hawizeh Marsh, quickly progressed in the 1980s
during the Iran-Iraq War in order to afford Iraqis a tactical advantage in the marshes (Alwash,
Alwash & Cattarossi, 2004). Part of the Hammar Marshes was also drained in 1985 to clear area
for oil exploration. (See Figure 9)
After the 1991 Gulf War, Shia Muslims in southern Iraq rebelled against Saddam Hussein
who in turned crushed the rebellious and further accelerated the draining of the Central and
Hammar marshes in order to evict Shias that had taken refuge in the marshes (Alwash et al.,

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2004). With the exception of the Nasiriyah Drainage Pump Station, the 565 km (351 mi) Third
River was completed in 1992 and two other canals were constructed south and nearly parallel to
it. One, the Mother of Battles canal, was constructed to divert the flow of the Euphrates south
below the Hammar Marsh. Second, the 240 km Loyalty to Leader Canal also known as the
Basrah Sweetwater Canal, which originates in the lower Euphrates region, collected water from
the terminus of the Gharraf River and diverted it under the Euphrates, away from the Central
Marshes and below the Hammar Marshes towards Basrah (Alwash et al., 2004; UNEP, 2011).
The Glory River was also constructed to divert water from the Tigris's southern-flowing
distributaries east and parallel along the Tigris until they reached the Euphrates near its
confluence with the Tigris at Qurna. (Alwash, Alwash & Cattarossi, 2004)
Figure 9: The Destruction of Iraq's Southern Marshes (CIA Publication IA 94-10020)

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5.2. Marshlands Situation in 2003
By the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the marshes had lost 90% of their size from the previous
decades (Richardson et al., 2005) (see Figure 10). The Central and Hammar Marshes were nearly
drained and only 35% of the Hawizeh Marshes remained (Richardson & Hussain, 2006). After
the invasion, locals destroyed dikes and tried to fix the environmental issue caused by the
politicians’ decision. The combined efforts of the Iraq government, United Nations, U.S.
agencies and record precipitation in Turkey helped begin a restoration of the marshes. As of late
2006, 58% of the original marshes had been reinundated (UNEP, 2011). The Nasiriyah Drainage
Pump Station was completed in 2009, affording the Third River to be used for agricultural
drainage (SIGIR, 2010). However, recent drought and continued upstream dam construction and
operation in Turkey, Syria and Iran have reduced the marshes to around 30% of their original
size by 2009 (Muir, 2009).
Figure 10: The Mesopotamia Marshland; Demise and the impending rebirth of ecosystem
(UNEP, 2001)

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6. Impact of the Draining
The draining of the Mesopotamian Marshland had various impacts on the ECO system,
and as a result of this draining the demographic of this unique Iraqi region changed. This part of
the report will explain in depth all impact of the draining on the ecology of the region, the
region’s economy, and its demographics.
6.1. Ecological Impact
The marshes were home to 40 species of birds and several species of fish plus
demarcating a range limit for a number of avifauna species. In addition to being home to millions
of birds, the marshes were the stopover for millions of other migratory birds, including
flamingos, pelicans and herons as they traveled from Siberia to Africa. Now 40% to 60% of the
world’s marbled teal population that live in the marshes are at risk, along with 90% of the
world's population of Basra Reed-warbler (Scott, 1995). Also at risk are the Sacred Ibis and
African Darter. A subspecies of the hooded crow known as the Mesopotamian crow is found in
this part of southern Iraq. There were also populations of several mammal species including the
unique Erythronesokia bunnii (Bunn's Short-Tailed Bandicoot Rat) and the Smooth-coated Otter
subspecies Lutra perspicillata maxwelli, which had only been described from specimens obtained
in the Central Marshes (Scott, 1995).
Seven species are now extinct from the marshes, including the Indian Crested Porcupine,
the bandicoot rat and the marsh gray wolf. The draining of the marshes caused a significant
decline in bioproductivity (UNEP, 2011). A study by the Wetland Ecosystem Research Group at
Royal Holloway, University of London concluded that thousands of fish and waterfowl died as
the waters receded, and that the central Qurnah marshes “essentially no longer exist as an

24. 17
Ecosystem.” According to a 2001 United Nations Environmental Programme report by Hassan
Paltrow, the projects resulted in all of the following:
a) The loss of a migration area for birds migrating from Eurasia to Africa, and consequent
decrease in bird populations in areas such as Ukraine and the Caucasus
b) Probable extinction of several plant and animal species endemic to the marshes
c) Saltwater intrusion and increased flow of pollutants into the Shatt-al-Arab waterway, causing
disruption of fisheries in the Persian Gulf
d) Desertification of over 7,500 square miles of marshlands including many of fresh water lakes
which considered as 40% of total Iraq water area, caused of increase the temperature in this
region by (3-5) Cº. (see Figure 11)
Figure 11: The Central Marsh; Comparison shows the water level and vegetation in 1979
compared to the drought in 1996, (UNEP, 2011)

25. 18
6.2. Economical Impact
Higher soil salinity in the marshes and adjacent areas has resulted in the loss of dairy production,
fishing, and rice cultivation. An estimated 60-65 % of the dairy products in Iraq originated in the
marshlands (IMRP, n.d.). The marshes were the perfect area to grow sugar cane; desertification of over
7,500 square miles (19,000 km2) resulted in the reduction of sugar cane production. (See Figure 11)
6.3. Demographic Impact
The majority of the marsh population the Marsh Arabs were displaced either to areas
adjacent to the drained marshes to towns and camps in other areas of Iraq or to Iranian refugee
camps, abandoning their traditional lifestyle in favor of conventional agriculture. Only 1,600 of
them were estimated to still be living on traditional dibins by 2003. The Marsh Arabs, who
numbered about half a million in the 1950s, have dwindled to as few as 20,000 in Iraq, according
to the United Nation High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR, 2006). An estimated 80,000 to
120,000 have fled to refugee camps in Iran.
The plan to drain the marshes was accompanied by a series of propaganda articles by the
Iraqi regime directed against the Marsh Arabs (Fisk, 2005); systematically converted the
wetlands into a desert, forcing the residents out of their settlements in the region. Villages in the
marshes were attacked and burnt down and there were reports of the water being deliberately
poisoned (Alwash et al., 2004).

26. 19
7. Solutions
After 2003 war, the Saddam regime collapsed. The local people take control of the
marshes draining system, and stared the restoration of the Marshes by destroying some parts of
the dikes and making the water re-flow to the marshlands. This section will discuss the
restoration actions and what is the future plan to protect the marshland region.
7.1. Current solution / Re- flooding
Following the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq, embankments and drainage works were broken
open, and the marshes began to re-flood. The Central Marshes showed little recovery through
2003, but by early 2004 a patchwork of lakes had appeared in northern areas; there was flooding
in southern areas which had previously been dry since the early 1990s. There has been some
corresponding re-colonization by the natural marsh vegetation since that time, and return of some
species of fish and birds, although recovery of the Central Marshes has been much slower
compared to the Huwaizah and Hammar Marshes. The most severely damaged sections of the
wetlands have yet to show any signs of regeneration. Erythronesokia bunnii, Lutra perspicillata
maxwelli and Anhinga rufa chantrei are all thought to have become extinct. (See Figure 12)
Figure 12: The Iraq's Marshes Restoration Project in the Hammar Marsh; main outfall drains,
(Holmes, 2010)

27. 20
7.2. Future plan/ Iraq Marshlands Restoration Program (IMRP)
The Iraq Marshlands Restoration Program is a robust initiative at the national level. It
works closely with the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) as its lead Government of Iraq
counterpart. The MoWR was subject to heavy looting just after the regime was deposed in April
2003. As a result, the Ministry lacks the necessary equipment to perform a thorough analysis on
water and soil conditions. As a partner, the program seeks to help the MoWR develop a world-
class soil and water laboratory though equipment purchases and the required training for Iraqi
scientists on the current analysis techniques and use of the laboratory equipment (IMRP, n.d.)
To support the Program’s work in the South, a soil and water laboratory has been
installed at the University of Basrah in 2004. This laboratory provides the essential tools needed
by the professors and students to analyze current physical conditions and predict future trends in
the marshes. Training on modern data collection and analysis techniques has been done by
scientists from the Duke University Wetlands Center in North Carolina 2005, and
Commonwealth Scientific Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) in Adelaide/ Australia, and
the Royal Holloway Institute of Environmental Research in London 2006 (IMRP, n. d.). The
main objectives and plans of (IMRP) are as follows:
7.2.1. Design a strategic and comprehensive marshlands plan
Marsh restoration must be part of an overall national restoration strategy and planned
with a common vision clear to all ministries involved in the restoration. Through the leadership
of the Ministry of Water Resources, the program will achieve this by helping to create a strategic
and comprehensive plan for ministries to collaborate and share knowledge, information and ideas
(IMRP, n. d.). The key components of the implementation approach for the strategic and
comprehensive marshlands plan are these:

28. 21
a) Collaboration: Reaching consensus among national ministries in Baghdad, governors’
offices in the South, the marsh dwellers, and the program in a four-way partnership on the
vision of the range of services to be provided and on commitments for each contribution.
b) Advocacy: Ensuring that the voice of the marsh dwellers is heard and incorporated into
decisions made about the restoration of the ecosystem and their social and economic future
through collaboration with regional ministerial offices.
c) Governance: Working with government institutions and NGOs to develop effective and
reasonably priced strategies to provide help to underserved areas and build local entities in
the process. (IMRP, n. d.)
7.2.2. Develop a hydrologic and hydraulic model
Marsh restoration must be part of an integrated plan for the region, which takes account
of other land use sectors and economic activities. The extent and impact of the re-flooding
remain largely unknown. This activity seeks to provide an assessment of where the re-flooding
occurred, how it shifts over time, and what are the ecological responses, which result from newly
increased flows in terms of water, soil, vegetation, wildlife, society, and economy. It also serves
as the basis for the identification of monitoring sites for development of ecosystem functions,
characterization of immediate and long-term effects on water, soil and biotic/resources,
assessment of the impact of re-flooding on local populations as well as the development of a plan
for integrated marshlands management. (IMRP, n. d.)
Development Alternatives, Inc., has subcontracted with the US Army Corps of Engineers
(USACE) to develop a hydrologic model of the Tigris-Euphrates basin. It may be possible to
input the results from the Hawizeh model back into the Reservoir System Simulation tool
(ResSim) developed by USACE. The objective of this model is to develop a circulation model of

29. 22
the Hawizeh Marsh in order to assess re-flooding, and gains an understanding of the potential
response of Hawizeh Marsh, and then use the results from this model as a base to implement to
other main marshes. (IMRP, n. d.)
7.2.3. Re-establish livestock and dairy production
Animal husbandry was clearly a mainstay of the Marsh Arab economy before the
drainage of the marshes. Water buffalo provided the major source of protein to the people. An
estimated 60% -65% of the dairy products in Iraq originated in the marshlands. Water buffalo
dung also provided fuel for fires. For many Marsh Arabs, this dung remains their only fuel.
Visits to the still existing, desiccated, and now re-flooded marshes following the war in April
2003, revealed a widespread presence of water buffalo, although their number is not known. This
section of the action plan is an initial attempt to understand the importance of livestock in the
current marsh economy, identify the constraints on animal and dairy production, and design tasks
which begin to address them on a pilot project level. (IMRP, n. d.)

30. 23
8. Conclusions
During the past few decades, the Iraq marshlands experienced a major operation to dry up
and destroy its natural resources. This resulted in massive environmental consequences
represented by the expansion of desertification, a rise in temperatures and salinity and a decline
in animal population, including some of the rare migrating birds, fish and cattle. Regaining the
marshes' ecological balance and biological diversity will be no easy matter and will require
concerted local and international efforts. The efforts to declare this unique landscape a park and
protected area began in 2006 through a joint effort by Iraq’s Ministry of Water Resources,
Ministry of Environment, and Ministry of Municipalities with support from Nature Iraq, an Iraqi
environmental conservation organization, and other national and international institutions, and
the financial support for the effort came from the Italian Ministry of Environment, Land and Sea.
The Central Marshes of Iraq have now been declared the country’s first national park. The Iraqi
Council of Ministers approved the designation on July 23, 2013. This declaration will support the
Iraqi Government to take this environmental issue to higher level and using all available global
efforts, make the restoration of the Marshlands one of the top priorities for any global
environmental events. This action will provide protection to this region and prevent any future
aggressive behavior could happen against the marshlands region.

31. 24
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