2. We are uncovering better ways of developing
software by doing it and helping others do it.
Through this work we have come to value:
Individualsand interactions over processes and tools
Working software over comprehensive
documentation
Customer collaboration over contract negotiation
Responding to change over following a plan
That is, while there is value in the items on
the right, we value the items on the left more.
3. 1. Our highest priority is to satisfy the customer through early and continuous
delivery of valuable software.
2. Welcome changing requirements, even late in development. Agile processes
harness change for the customer's competitive advantage.
3. Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of weeks to a couple of
months, with a preference to the shorter timescale.
4. Business people and developers must work together daily throughout the project.
5. Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the environment and
support they need, and trust them to get the job done.
6. The most efficient and effective method of conveying information to and within a
development team is face-to-face conversation.
7. Working software is the primary measure of progress.
8. Agile processes promote sustainable development. The sponsors, developers, and
users should be able to maintain a constant pace indefinitely.
9. Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design enhances agility.
10. Simplicity--the art of maximizing the amount of work not done--is essential.
11. The best architectures, requirements, and designs emerge from self-organizing
teams.
12. At regular intervals, the team reflects on how to become more effective, then tunes
and adjusts its behavior accordingly.
4. Organizational structure is an enterprise
environmental factor that could have a big
impact on
How resources are made available, and
How projects are executed
5. Is a hierarchy where each employee has one
clear superior.
Staff members are grouped by specialty, such
a production, marketing, engineering, and
accounting at the top level. Specialties may be
further sub-divided into functional
organizations, such as mechanical and
electrical engineering
Each department does its project work
independent of other projects
7. Maintains many of the characteristics of
functional organization, and the PM role is
more of a coordinator or expeditor than a true
PM
8. While the balanced matrix organization
recognizes the need for a PM, it doesn’t
provide the PM with full authority over
project and project funding
9. Strong matrices have many characteristics of
the projectized organization, and can have
full-time PMs with considerable authority
and full-time administrative staff
10. At other end of the spectrum to the functional
organization is the projectized organization
Team members are often co-located, most of
the organization’s resources are involved in
project work, and PMs have a great deal of
independence and authority.
Often have organizational units called
departments, but these groups either report
directly to the PM or provide support services
to the various projects
12. Many organizations involve all these
structures at various levels.
For example, even a fundamentally functional
organization may create a special team to
handle a critical project. Such a team might
have many characteristics of a project team in
a projectized organization. The team may
include full-time staff from different
departments, may develop its own set of
operating procedures, and may operate
outside the standard, formalized reporting
structure.
15. Project Functional Weak Balanced Strong Projectized
Characteristics Matrix Matrix Matrix
Project Little or Limited Low to Moderate High to
Manager’s none Moderate to High Almost Total
authority
Resource Little or Limited Low to Moderate High to
Availability none Moderate to High Almost Total
Who controls Functional Functional Mixed Project Project
the project Manager Manager Manager Managers
budget
Project Part-time Part-time Full-time Full-time Full-time
Manager’s role
Project Part-time Part-time Part-time Full-time Full-time
Management
Administrative
Staff
16. No one perfect organizational structure for managing
projects exists.
The functional, the project, and the different matrix structures
all have strengths and weaknesses. The final choice should
come after weighing various factors in the nature of the task,
the needs of the organization, and the environment of the
project.
The functional structure will work for many projects in many
organizations, especially if lateral communications can be
improved through integrating mechanisms and procedures
short of hiring a matrix coordinator.
When a matrix approach is chosen, the entire organization must
put a good deal of effort into it to make it work. In particular,
the project coordinator or project manager in the matrix must
be carefully chosen and trained. His interpersonal skills are
more important than his technical knowledge.
In many situations, a project organization may appear to be the
simplest solution from the viewpoint of the project manager.
However, the functional managers or top management may not
find it to be the best long-range or most strategic decision.
17. Favors Functional Favors Matrix Favors Project
Structure Structure Structure
Uncertainty Low High High
Technology Standard Complicated New
Complexity Low Medium High
Duration Short Medium Long
Size Small Medium Large
Importance Low Medium High
Customer Diverse Medium One
Interdependency Low Medium High
(within)
Interdependency High Medium Low
(between)
Time Criticality Low Medium High
Resource Criticality Depends Depends Depends
Differentiation Low High Medium
18. The advantages of a matrix include:
Individuals can be chosen according to the needs of the
project.
The use of a project team which is dynamic and able to
view problems in a different way as specialists have been
brought together in a new environment.
Project managers are directly responsible for completing
the project within a specific deadline and budget.
Whilst the disadvantages include:
A conflict of loyalty between line managers and project
managers over the allocation of resources.
If teams have a lot of independence can be difficult to
monitor.
Costs can be increased if more managers (i.e. project
managers) are created through the use of project teams.
20. High dependence on leader for guidance and
direction.
Little agreement on team aims other than
received from leader.
Individual roles and responsibilities are unclear.
Leader must be prepared to answer lots of
questions about the team's purpose, objectives
and external relationships.
Processes are often ignored.
Members test tolerance of system and leader.
Leader directs (similar to Situational
Leadership® 'Telling' mode).
21. Decisions don't come easily within group.
Team members vie for position as they attempt to
establish themselves in relation to other team
members and the leader, who might receive
challenges from team members.
Clarity of purpose increases but plenty of
uncertainties persist.
Cliques and factions form and there may be power
struggles.
The team needs to be focused on its goals to avoid
becoming distracted by relationships and emotional
issues.
Compromises may be required to enable progress.
Leader coaches (similar to Situational Leadership®
'Selling' mode).
22. Agreement and consensus is largely forms among
team, who respond well to facilitation by leader.
Roles and responsibilities are clear and accepted.
Big decisions are made by group agreement.
Smaller decisions may be delegated to
individuals or small teams within group.
Commitment and unity is strong.
The team may engage in fun and social activities.
The team discusses and develops its processes
and working style.
There is general respect for the leader and some
of leadership is more shared by the team.
Leader facilitates and enables (similar to the
Situational Leadership® 'Participating' mode).
23. The team is more strategically aware; the team knows clearly
why it is doing what it is doing.
The team has a shared vision and is able to stand on its own feet
with no interference or participation from the leader.
There is a focus on over-achieving goals, and the team makes
most of the decisions against criteria agreed with the leader.
The team has a high degree of autonomy.
Disagreements occur but now they are resolved within the team
positively and necessary changes to processes and structure are
made by the team.
The team is able to work towards achieving the goal, and also to
attend to relationship, style and process issues along the way.
team members look after each other.
The team requires delegated tasks and projects from the leader.
The team does not need to be instructed or assisted.
Team members might ask for assistance from the leader with
personal and interpersonal development.
Leader delegates and oversees (similar to the Situational
Leadership® 'Delegating' mode).
24. Bruce Tuckman refined his theory around 1975 and added a fifth stage to
the model - he called it Adjourning, which is also referred to as Deforming
and Mourning.
Adjourning is arguably more of an adjunct to the original four stage model
rather than an extension - it views the group from a perspective beyond the
purpose of the first four stages.
The Adjourning phase is certainly very relevant to the people in the group
and their well-being, but not to the main task of managing and developing
a team, which is clearly central to the original four stages.
Tuckman's fifth stage, Adjourning, is the break-up of the group, hopefully
when the task is completed successfully, its purpose fulfilled; everyone can
move on to new things, feeling good about what's been achieved.
From an organizational perspective, recognition of and sensitivity to
people's vulnerabilities in Tuckman's fifth stage is helpful, particularly if
members of the group have been closely bonded and feel a sense of
insecurity or threat from this change.
Feelings of insecurity would be natural for people with high 'steadiness'
attributes (as regards the 'four temperaments' or DISC model) and with
strong routine and empathy style (as regards the Benziger thinking styles
model, right and left basal brain dominance).
26. Can be used to identify factors for building
and developing small groups
Provides a level of guidance for team
development
Limitations:
Was designed for small groups
In reality, group processes might not be linear, but
cyclical
There might be overlap between stages
Model doesn’t take into account individual roles
No guidance on timeframe from one stage to next
27. The Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum also
correlates in a way to the models above -
essentially that management style tends to offer
more freedom as the group matures.
The diagonal line loosely equates to the dotted
line on the other two models. As the team
matures and becomes more self-sufficient and
self-directing, so the manager's style should react
accordingly, ideally becoming more detached,
more delegating, encouraging and enabling the
group to run itself, and for a successor (or if you
are a good manager or a lucky one, for more than
one successor) to emerge.
30. Hersey and Blanchard characterized leadership style in terms of
the amount of Task Behavior and Relationship Behavior that the
leader provides to their followers. They categorized all
leadership styles into four behavior types, which they named S1
to S4:
S1: Telling - is characterized by one-way communication in which the
leader defines the roles of the individual or group and provides the what,
how, when, and where to do the task
S2: Selling - while the leader is still providing the direction, he or she is
now using two-way communication and providing the socioemotional
support that will allow the individual or group being influenced to buy
into the process.
S3: Participating - this is now shared decision making about aspects of
how the task is accomplished and the leader is providing less task
behaviors while maintaining high relationship behavior.
S4: Delegating - the leaders is still involved in decisions; however, the
process and responsibility has been passed to the individual or group. The
leader stays involved to monitor progress.
Of these, no one style is considered optimal for all leaders to use
all the time. Effective leaders need to be flexible, and must adapt
themselves according to the situation.
31. The right leadership style will depend on the person or
group being led - the follower. The Hersey-Blanchard
Situational Leadership Theory identified four levels of
Maturity M1 through M4:
M1 - They generally lack the specific skills required for the job in
hand and are unable and unwilling to do or to take responsibility
for this job or task.
M2 - They are still unable to take on responsibility for the task
being done; however, they are willing to work at the task.
M3 - They are experienced and able to do the task but lack the
confidence to take on responsibility.
M4 - They are experienced at the task, and comfortable with their
own ability to do it well. They able and willing to not only do the
task, but to take responsibility for the task.
Maturity Levels are also task specific. A person might be
generally skilled, confident and motivated in their job, but
would still have a Maturity level M2 when asked to
perform a task requiring skills they don't possess.
32. Coercive Power
Reward Power
Legitimate Power
Referent Power
Expert Power
33. This type of power is based upon the idea of coercion. This
involves forcing someone to do something that they do not want
to do. The ultimate goal of coercion is compliance. According to
Changingminds.org "demonstrations of harm are often used to
illustrate what will happen if compliance is not gained".
French & Raven (1959) state that "other forms of power can also
be used in coercive ways, such as when reward or expertise is
withheld or referent power is used to threaten social exclusion".
The power of coercion has been proven to be related with
punitive behavior that may be outside one's normal role
expectations. (Hinkin & Schriesheim 1989)
However coercion has also been associated positively with
generally punitive behavior and negatively associated to
contingent reward behavior.(Gioia & Sims 1983) This source of
power can often lead to problems and in many circumstances it
involves abuse. Mindtools.com states that "coercive power can
cause unhealthy behavior and dissatisfaction in the workplace".
These type of leaders rely on the use of threats in their
leadership style. Often the threats involve saying someone will
be fired or demoted.
34. The second type of power involves having the ability to
administer to another things he/she desires or to remove or
decrease things he/she does not desire. (French & Raven 1959)
For supervisors in an organizational setting, it is the perceived
ability to present subordinates with outcomes that are valued in
a positive manner. (Hinkin & Schriesheim 1989)
This type of power in based on the idea that we as a society are
more prone to do things and to do them well when we are
getting something out of it. Social exchange theorists as well as
Power-Dependence theorists continue to focus on the idea of
reward power. (Molm 1988)
The most popular forms are offering raises, promotions, and
simply compliments. The problem with this according to
Mindtools.com is that "when you use up available rewards, or
the rewards don't have enough perceived value to others, your
power weakens. (One of the frustrations with using rewards is
that they often need to be bigger each time if they're to have the
same motivational impact. Even then, if rewards are given
frequently, people can become satisfied by the reward, such that
it loses its effectiveness.)"
35. The power which holds the ability to administer to
another certain feelings of obligation or the notion of
responsibility. (Hinkin & Schriesheim 1989)
"Rewarding and Punishing subordinates is generally
seen as a legitimate part of the formal or appointed
leadership role and most managerial positions in
work organizations carry with them, some degree of
expected reward and punishment".( Bass 1990)
Legitimate power is typically based on one's role.
people are traditionally obeying the person holding
this power solely based on their position or title
rather than the person specifically as a leader.
Therefore this type of power can easily dissolve with
the loss of a position or title. This power is therefore
not strong enough to be one's only form of
influencing/persuading others.
36. The power of holding the ability to administer to
another feelings of personal acceptance or personal
approval. (Hinkin & Schriesheim 1989) This type of
power is strong enough that the power-holder is often
looked up to as a role model. (Raven, 1988) This
power is often looked at as admiration, or charm.
The power derives from one person having an overall
likability leading people to strongly identify with
them in one form or another.
A person with this type of power generally makes
people feel good around them therefore one has a lot
of influence. The responsibility involved is heavy
and one can easily lose this power, but when
combined with other forms of power it can be very
useful. Celebrities often have this type of power in
society on the flip side they also often lose it quickly
in some circumstances.
37. The ability to administer to another
information, knowledge or expertise. (French
& Raven 1959) Leaders who possess this type
of power have high intelligence and rely on
their ability to perform various organizational
tasks and functions. This power makes one
able to combine the power of reward in the
correct fashion.
When someone has the expertise in an
organization people are more convinced to
trust them and to respect what they stand for.
When your expertise is valued, so are your
ideas, and leadership.