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Tathagat Varma


Tathagat Varma
 Session 4/12: 04-Jun-2010
    We are uncovering better ways of developing
     software by doing it and helping others do it.
     Through this work we have come to value:
       Individualsand interactions over processes and tools
       Working software over comprehensive
        documentation
       Customer collaboration over contract negotiation
       Responding to change over following a plan

    That is, while there is value in the items on
     the right, we value the items on the left more.
1.     Our highest priority is to satisfy the customer through early and continuous
       delivery of valuable software.
2.     Welcome changing requirements, even late in development. Agile processes
       harness change for the customer's competitive advantage.
3.     Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of weeks to a couple of
       months, with a preference to the shorter timescale.
4.     Business people and developers must work together daily throughout the project.
5.     Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the environment and
       support they need, and trust them to get the job done.
6.     The most efficient and effective method of conveying information to and within a
       development team is face-to-face conversation.
7.     Working software is the primary measure of progress.
8.     Agile processes promote sustainable development. The sponsors, developers, and
       users should be able to maintain a constant pace indefinitely.
9.     Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design enhances agility.
10.    Simplicity--the art of maximizing the amount of work not done--is essential.
11.    The best architectures, requirements, and designs emerge from self-organizing
       teams.
12.    At regular intervals, the team reflects on how to become more effective, then tunes
       and adjusts its behavior accordingly.
    Organizational structure is an enterprise
     environmental factor that could have a big
     impact on
       How resources are made available, and
       How projects are executed
    Is a hierarchy where each employee has one
     clear superior.
    Staff members are grouped by specialty, such
     a production, marketing, engineering, and
     accounting at the top level. Specialties may be
     further sub-divided into functional
     organizations, such as mechanical and
     electrical engineering
    Each department does its project work
     independent of other projects
Project Management 04
    Maintains many of the characteristics of
     functional organization, and the PM role is
     more of a coordinator or expeditor than a true
     PM
    While the balanced matrix organization
     recognizes the need for a PM, it doesn’t
     provide the PM with full authority over
     project and project funding
    Strong matrices have many characteristics of
     the projectized organization, and can have
     full-time PMs with considerable authority
     and full-time administrative staff
    At other end of the spectrum to the functional
     organization is the projectized organization
    Team members are often co-located, most of
     the organization’s resources are involved in
     project work, and PMs have a great deal of
     independence and authority.
    Often have organizational units called
     departments, but these groups either report
     directly to the PM or provide support services
     to the various projects
Project Management 04
    Many organizations involve all these
     structures at various levels.
    For example, even a fundamentally functional
     organization may create a special team to
     handle a critical project. Such a team might
     have many characteristics of a project team in
     a projectized organization. The team may
     include full-time staff from different
     departments, may develop its own set of
     operating procedures, and may operate
     outside the standard, formalized reporting
     structure.
Project Management 04
Project Management 04
Project           Functional   Weak         Balanced    Strong      Projectized
Characteristics                Matrix       Matrix      Matrix

Project           Little or    Limited      Low to      Moderate    High to
Manager’s         none                      Moderate    to High     Almost Total
authority

Resource          Little or    Limited      Low to      Moderate    High to
Availability      none                      Moderate    to High     Almost Total

Who controls      Functional   Functional   Mixed       Project     Project
the project       Manager      Manager                  Manager     Managers
budget

Project           Part-time    Part-time    Full-time   Full-time   Full-time
Manager’s role

Project           Part-time    Part-time    Part-time   Full-time   Full-time
Management
Administrative
Staff
    No one perfect organizational structure for managing
     projects exists.
       The functional, the project, and the different matrix structures
        all have strengths and weaknesses. The final choice should
        come after weighing various factors in the nature of the task,
        the needs of the organization, and the environment of the
        project.
       The functional structure will work for many projects in many
        organizations, especially if lateral communications can be
        improved through integrating mechanisms and procedures
        short of hiring a matrix coordinator.
       When a matrix approach is chosen, the entire organization must
        put a good deal of effort into it to make it work. In particular,
        the project coordinator or project manager in the matrix must
        be carefully chosen and trained. His interpersonal skills are
        more important than his technical knowledge.
       In many situations, a project organization may appear to be the
        simplest solution from the viewpoint of the project manager.
        However, the functional managers or top management may not
        find it to be the best long-range or most strategic decision.
Favors Functional   Favors Matrix   Favors Project
                       Structure           Structure       Structure
Uncertainty            Low                 High            High
Technology             Standard            Complicated     New
Complexity             Low                 Medium          High
Duration               Short               Medium          Long
Size                   Small               Medium          Large
Importance             Low                 Medium          High
Customer               Diverse             Medium          One
Interdependency        Low                 Medium          High
(within)
Interdependency        High                Medium          Low
(between)
Time Criticality       Low                 Medium          High
Resource Criticality   Depends             Depends         Depends
Differentiation        Low                 High            Medium
    The advantages of a matrix include:
       Individuals can be chosen according to the needs of the
        project.
       The use of a project team which is dynamic and able to
        view problems in a different way as specialists have been
        brought together in a new environment.
       Project managers are directly responsible for completing
        the project within a specific deadline and budget.
    Whilst the disadvantages include:
       A conflict of loyalty between line managers and project
        managers over the allocation of resources.
       If teams have a lot of independence can be difficult to
        monitor.
       Costs can be increased if more managers (i.e. project
        managers) are created through the use of project teams.
Forming   Storming   Norming   Performing   Adjourning
    High dependence on leader for guidance and
     direction.
    Little agreement on team aims other than
     received from leader.
    Individual roles and responsibilities are unclear.
    Leader must be prepared to answer lots of
     questions about the team's purpose, objectives
     and external relationships.
    Processes are often ignored.
    Members test tolerance of system and leader.
    Leader directs (similar to Situational
     Leadership® 'Telling' mode).
    Decisions don't come easily within group.
    Team members vie for position as they attempt to
     establish themselves in relation to other team
     members and the leader, who might receive
     challenges from team members.
    Clarity of purpose increases but plenty of
     uncertainties persist.
    Cliques and factions form and there may be power
     struggles.
    The team needs to be focused on its goals to avoid
     becoming distracted by relationships and emotional
     issues.
    Compromises may be required to enable progress.
    Leader coaches (similar to Situational Leadership®
     'Selling' mode).
    Agreement and consensus is largely forms among
     team, who respond well to facilitation by leader.
    Roles and responsibilities are clear and accepted.
    Big decisions are made by group agreement.
    Smaller decisions may be delegated to
     individuals or small teams within group.
    Commitment and unity is strong.
    The team may engage in fun and social activities.
    The team discusses and develops its processes
     and working style.
    There is general respect for the leader and some
     of leadership is more shared by the team.
    Leader facilitates and enables (similar to the
     Situational Leadership® 'Participating' mode).
    The team is more strategically aware; the team knows clearly
     why it is doing what it is doing.
    The team has a shared vision and is able to stand on its own feet
     with no interference or participation from the leader.
    There is a focus on over-achieving goals, and the team makes
     most of the decisions against criteria agreed with the leader.
    The team has a high degree of autonomy.
    Disagreements occur but now they are resolved within the team
     positively and necessary changes to processes and structure are
     made by the team.
    The team is able to work towards achieving the goal, and also to
     attend to relationship, style and process issues along the way.
     team members look after each other.
    The team requires delegated tasks and projects from the leader.
    The team does not need to be instructed or assisted.
    Team members might ask for assistance from the leader with
     personal and interpersonal development.
    Leader delegates and oversees (similar to the Situational
     Leadership® 'Delegating' mode).
    Bruce Tuckman refined his theory around 1975 and added a fifth stage to
     the model - he called it Adjourning, which is also referred to as Deforming
     and Mourning.
    Adjourning is arguably more of an adjunct to the original four stage model
     rather than an extension - it views the group from a perspective beyond the
     purpose of the first four stages.
    The Adjourning phase is certainly very relevant to the people in the group
     and their well-being, but not to the main task of managing and developing
     a team, which is clearly central to the original four stages.
    Tuckman's fifth stage, Adjourning, is the break-up of the group, hopefully
     when the task is completed successfully, its purpose fulfilled; everyone can
     move on to new things, feeling good about what's been achieved.
    From an organizational perspective, recognition of and sensitivity to
     people's vulnerabilities in Tuckman's fifth stage is helpful, particularly if
     members of the group have been closely bonded and feel a sense of
     insecurity or threat from this change.
    Feelings of insecurity would be natural for people with high 'steadiness'
     attributes (as regards the 'four temperaments' or DISC model) and with
     strong routine and empathy style (as regards the Benziger thinking styles
     model, right and left basal brain dominance).
Project Management 04
    Can be used to identify factors for building
     and developing small groups
    Provides a level of guidance for team
     development
    Limitations:
       Was  designed for small groups
       In reality, group processes might not be linear, but
        cyclical
       There might be overlap between stages
       Model doesn’t take into account individual roles
       No guidance on timeframe from one stage to next
    The Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum also
     correlates in a way to the models above -
     essentially that management style tends to offer
     more freedom as the group matures.
    The diagonal line loosely equates to the dotted
     line on the other two models. As the team
     matures and becomes more self-sufficient and
     self-directing, so the manager's style should react
     accordingly, ideally becoming more detached,
     more delegating, encouraging and enabling the
     group to run itself, and for a successor (or if you
     are a good manager or a lucky one, for more than
     one successor) to emerge.
Project Management 04
Project Management 04
    Hersey and Blanchard characterized leadership style in terms of
     the amount of Task Behavior and Relationship Behavior that the
     leader provides to their followers. They categorized all
     leadership styles into four behavior types, which they named S1
     to S4:
         S1: Telling - is characterized by one-way communication in which the
          leader defines the roles of the individual or group and provides the what,
          how, when, and where to do the task
         S2: Selling - while the leader is still providing the direction, he or she is
          now using two-way communication and providing the socioemotional
          support that will allow the individual or group being influenced to buy
          into the process.
         S3: Participating - this is now shared decision making about aspects of
          how the task is accomplished and the leader is providing less task
          behaviors while maintaining high relationship behavior.
         S4: Delegating - the leaders is still involved in decisions; however, the
          process and responsibility has been passed to the individual or group. The
          leader stays involved to monitor progress.
    Of these, no one style is considered optimal for all leaders to use
     all the time. Effective leaders need to be flexible, and must adapt
     themselves according to the situation.
    The right leadership style will depend on the person or
     group being led - the follower. The Hersey-Blanchard
     Situational Leadership Theory identified four levels of
     Maturity M1 through M4:
         M1 - They generally lack the specific skills required for the job in
          hand and are unable and unwilling to do or to take responsibility
          for this job or task.
         M2 - They are still unable to take on responsibility for the task
          being done; however, they are willing to work at the task.
         M3 - They are experienced and able to do the task but lack the
          confidence to take on responsibility.
         M4 - They are experienced at the task, and comfortable with their
          own ability to do it well. They able and willing to not only do the
          task, but to take responsibility for the task.
    Maturity Levels are also task specific. A person might be
     generally skilled, confident and motivated in their job, but
     would still have a Maturity level M2 when asked to
     perform a task requiring skills they don't possess.
    Coercive Power
    Reward Power
    Legitimate Power
    Referent Power
    Expert Power
    This type of power is based upon the idea of coercion. This
     involves forcing someone to do something that they do not want
     to do. The ultimate goal of coercion is compliance. According to
     Changingminds.org "demonstrations of harm are often used to
     illustrate what will happen if compliance is not gained".
    French & Raven (1959) state that "other forms of power can also
     be used in coercive ways, such as when reward or expertise is
     withheld or referent power is used to threaten social exclusion".
    The power of coercion has been proven to be related with
     punitive behavior that may be outside one's normal role
     expectations. (Hinkin & Schriesheim 1989)
    However coercion has also been associated positively with
     generally punitive behavior and negatively associated to
     contingent reward behavior.(Gioia & Sims 1983) This source of
     power can often lead to problems and in many circumstances it
     involves abuse. Mindtools.com states that "coercive power can
     cause unhealthy behavior and dissatisfaction in the workplace".
     These type of leaders rely on the use of threats in their
     leadership style. Often the threats involve saying someone will
     be fired or demoted.
    The second type of power involves having the ability to
     administer to another things he/she desires or to remove or
     decrease things he/she does not desire. (French & Raven 1959)
     For supervisors in an organizational setting, it is the perceived
     ability to present subordinates with outcomes that are valued in
     a positive manner. (Hinkin & Schriesheim 1989)
    This type of power in based on the idea that we as a society are
     more prone to do things and to do them well when we are
     getting something out of it. Social exchange theorists as well as
     Power-Dependence theorists continue to focus on the idea of
     reward power. (Molm 1988)
    The most popular forms are offering raises, promotions, and
     simply compliments. The problem with this according to
     Mindtools.com is that "when you use up available rewards, or
     the rewards don't have enough perceived value to others, your
     power weakens. (One of the frustrations with using rewards is
     that they often need to be bigger each time if they're to have the
     same motivational impact. Even then, if rewards are given
     frequently, people can become satisfied by the reward, such that
     it loses its effectiveness.)"
    The power which holds the ability to administer to
     another certain feelings of obligation or the notion of
     responsibility. (Hinkin & Schriesheim 1989)
     "Rewarding and Punishing subordinates is generally
     seen as a legitimate part of the formal or appointed
     leadership role and most managerial positions in
     work organizations carry with them, some degree of
     expected reward and punishment".( Bass 1990)
    Legitimate power is typically based on one's role.
     people are traditionally obeying the person holding
     this power solely based on their position or title
     rather than the person specifically as a leader.
     Therefore this type of power can easily dissolve with
     the loss of a position or title. This power is therefore
     not strong enough to be one's only form of
     influencing/persuading others.
    The power of holding the ability to administer to
     another feelings of personal acceptance or personal
     approval. (Hinkin & Schriesheim 1989) This type of
     power is strong enough that the power-holder is often
     looked up to as a role model. (Raven, 1988) This
     power is often looked at as admiration, or charm.
    The power derives from one person having an overall
     likability leading people to strongly identify with
     them in one form or another.
    A person with this type of power generally makes
     people feel good around them therefore one has a lot
     of influence. The responsibility involved is heavy
     and one can easily lose this power, but when
     combined with other forms of power it can be very
     useful. Celebrities often have this type of power in
     society on the flip side they also often lose it quickly
     in some circumstances.
    The ability to administer to another
     information, knowledge or expertise. (French
     & Raven 1959) Leaders who possess this type
     of power have high intelligence and rely on
     their ability to perform various organizational
     tasks and functions. This power makes one
     able to combine the power of reward in the
     correct fashion.
    When someone has the expertise in an
     organization people are more convinced to
     trust them and to respect what they stand for.
     When your expertise is valued, so are your
     ideas, and leadership.

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Project Management 04

  • 1. Tathagat Varma Tathagat Varma Session 4/12: 04-Jun-2010
  • 2.   We are uncovering better ways of developing software by doing it and helping others do it. Through this work we have come to value:   Individualsand interactions over processes and tools   Working software over comprehensive documentation   Customer collaboration over contract negotiation   Responding to change over following a plan   That is, while there is value in the items on the right, we value the items on the left more.
  • 3. 1.  Our highest priority is to satisfy the customer through early and continuous delivery of valuable software. 2.  Welcome changing requirements, even late in development. Agile processes harness change for the customer's competitive advantage. 3.  Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of weeks to a couple of months, with a preference to the shorter timescale. 4.  Business people and developers must work together daily throughout the project. 5.  Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the environment and support they need, and trust them to get the job done. 6.  The most efficient and effective method of conveying information to and within a development team is face-to-face conversation. 7.  Working software is the primary measure of progress. 8.  Agile processes promote sustainable development. The sponsors, developers, and users should be able to maintain a constant pace indefinitely. 9.  Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design enhances agility. 10.  Simplicity--the art of maximizing the amount of work not done--is essential. 11.  The best architectures, requirements, and designs emerge from self-organizing teams. 12.  At regular intervals, the team reflects on how to become more effective, then tunes and adjusts its behavior accordingly.
  • 4.   Organizational structure is an enterprise environmental factor that could have a big impact on   How resources are made available, and   How projects are executed
  • 5.   Is a hierarchy where each employee has one clear superior.   Staff members are grouped by specialty, such a production, marketing, engineering, and accounting at the top level. Specialties may be further sub-divided into functional organizations, such as mechanical and electrical engineering   Each department does its project work independent of other projects
  • 7.   Maintains many of the characteristics of functional organization, and the PM role is more of a coordinator or expeditor than a true PM
  • 8.   While the balanced matrix organization recognizes the need for a PM, it doesn’t provide the PM with full authority over project and project funding
  • 9.   Strong matrices have many characteristics of the projectized organization, and can have full-time PMs with considerable authority and full-time administrative staff
  • 10.   At other end of the spectrum to the functional organization is the projectized organization   Team members are often co-located, most of the organization’s resources are involved in project work, and PMs have a great deal of independence and authority.   Often have organizational units called departments, but these groups either report directly to the PM or provide support services to the various projects
  • 12.   Many organizations involve all these structures at various levels.   For example, even a fundamentally functional organization may create a special team to handle a critical project. Such a team might have many characteristics of a project team in a projectized organization. The team may include full-time staff from different departments, may develop its own set of operating procedures, and may operate outside the standard, formalized reporting structure.
  • 15. Project Functional Weak Balanced Strong Projectized Characteristics Matrix Matrix Matrix Project Little or Limited Low to Moderate High to Manager’s none Moderate to High Almost Total authority Resource Little or Limited Low to Moderate High to Availability none Moderate to High Almost Total Who controls Functional Functional Mixed Project Project the project Manager Manager Manager Managers budget Project Part-time Part-time Full-time Full-time Full-time Manager’s role Project Part-time Part-time Part-time Full-time Full-time Management Administrative Staff
  • 16.   No one perfect organizational structure for managing projects exists.   The functional, the project, and the different matrix structures all have strengths and weaknesses. The final choice should come after weighing various factors in the nature of the task, the needs of the organization, and the environment of the project.   The functional structure will work for many projects in many organizations, especially if lateral communications can be improved through integrating mechanisms and procedures short of hiring a matrix coordinator.   When a matrix approach is chosen, the entire organization must put a good deal of effort into it to make it work. In particular, the project coordinator or project manager in the matrix must be carefully chosen and trained. His interpersonal skills are more important than his technical knowledge.   In many situations, a project organization may appear to be the simplest solution from the viewpoint of the project manager. However, the functional managers or top management may not find it to be the best long-range or most strategic decision.
  • 17. Favors Functional Favors Matrix Favors Project Structure Structure Structure Uncertainty Low High High Technology Standard Complicated New Complexity Low Medium High Duration Short Medium Long Size Small Medium Large Importance Low Medium High Customer Diverse Medium One Interdependency Low Medium High (within) Interdependency High Medium Low (between) Time Criticality Low Medium High Resource Criticality Depends Depends Depends Differentiation Low High Medium
  • 18.   The advantages of a matrix include:   Individuals can be chosen according to the needs of the project.   The use of a project team which is dynamic and able to view problems in a different way as specialists have been brought together in a new environment.   Project managers are directly responsible for completing the project within a specific deadline and budget.   Whilst the disadvantages include:   A conflict of loyalty between line managers and project managers over the allocation of resources.   If teams have a lot of independence can be difficult to monitor.   Costs can be increased if more managers (i.e. project managers) are created through the use of project teams.
  • 19. Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning
  • 20.   High dependence on leader for guidance and direction.   Little agreement on team aims other than received from leader.   Individual roles and responsibilities are unclear.   Leader must be prepared to answer lots of questions about the team's purpose, objectives and external relationships.   Processes are often ignored.   Members test tolerance of system and leader.   Leader directs (similar to Situational Leadership® 'Telling' mode).
  • 21.   Decisions don't come easily within group.   Team members vie for position as they attempt to establish themselves in relation to other team members and the leader, who might receive challenges from team members.   Clarity of purpose increases but plenty of uncertainties persist.   Cliques and factions form and there may be power struggles.   The team needs to be focused on its goals to avoid becoming distracted by relationships and emotional issues.   Compromises may be required to enable progress.   Leader coaches (similar to Situational Leadership® 'Selling' mode).
  • 22.   Agreement and consensus is largely forms among team, who respond well to facilitation by leader.   Roles and responsibilities are clear and accepted.   Big decisions are made by group agreement.   Smaller decisions may be delegated to individuals or small teams within group.   Commitment and unity is strong.   The team may engage in fun and social activities.   The team discusses and develops its processes and working style.   There is general respect for the leader and some of leadership is more shared by the team.   Leader facilitates and enables (similar to the Situational Leadership® 'Participating' mode).
  • 23.   The team is more strategically aware; the team knows clearly why it is doing what it is doing.   The team has a shared vision and is able to stand on its own feet with no interference or participation from the leader.   There is a focus on over-achieving goals, and the team makes most of the decisions against criteria agreed with the leader.   The team has a high degree of autonomy.   Disagreements occur but now they are resolved within the team positively and necessary changes to processes and structure are made by the team.   The team is able to work towards achieving the goal, and also to attend to relationship, style and process issues along the way. team members look after each other.   The team requires delegated tasks and projects from the leader.   The team does not need to be instructed or assisted.   Team members might ask for assistance from the leader with personal and interpersonal development.   Leader delegates and oversees (similar to the Situational Leadership® 'Delegating' mode).
  • 24.   Bruce Tuckman refined his theory around 1975 and added a fifth stage to the model - he called it Adjourning, which is also referred to as Deforming and Mourning.   Adjourning is arguably more of an adjunct to the original four stage model rather than an extension - it views the group from a perspective beyond the purpose of the first four stages.   The Adjourning phase is certainly very relevant to the people in the group and their well-being, but not to the main task of managing and developing a team, which is clearly central to the original four stages.   Tuckman's fifth stage, Adjourning, is the break-up of the group, hopefully when the task is completed successfully, its purpose fulfilled; everyone can move on to new things, feeling good about what's been achieved.   From an organizational perspective, recognition of and sensitivity to people's vulnerabilities in Tuckman's fifth stage is helpful, particularly if members of the group have been closely bonded and feel a sense of insecurity or threat from this change.   Feelings of insecurity would be natural for people with high 'steadiness' attributes (as regards the 'four temperaments' or DISC model) and with strong routine and empathy style (as regards the Benziger thinking styles model, right and left basal brain dominance).
  • 26.   Can be used to identify factors for building and developing small groups   Provides a level of guidance for team development   Limitations:   Was designed for small groups   In reality, group processes might not be linear, but cyclical   There might be overlap between stages   Model doesn’t take into account individual roles   No guidance on timeframe from one stage to next
  • 27.   The Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum also correlates in a way to the models above - essentially that management style tends to offer more freedom as the group matures.   The diagonal line loosely equates to the dotted line on the other two models. As the team matures and becomes more self-sufficient and self-directing, so the manager's style should react accordingly, ideally becoming more detached, more delegating, encouraging and enabling the group to run itself, and for a successor (or if you are a good manager or a lucky one, for more than one successor) to emerge.
  • 30.   Hersey and Blanchard characterized leadership style in terms of the amount of Task Behavior and Relationship Behavior that the leader provides to their followers. They categorized all leadership styles into four behavior types, which they named S1 to S4:   S1: Telling - is characterized by one-way communication in which the leader defines the roles of the individual or group and provides the what, how, when, and where to do the task   S2: Selling - while the leader is still providing the direction, he or she is now using two-way communication and providing the socioemotional support that will allow the individual or group being influenced to buy into the process.   S3: Participating - this is now shared decision making about aspects of how the task is accomplished and the leader is providing less task behaviors while maintaining high relationship behavior.   S4: Delegating - the leaders is still involved in decisions; however, the process and responsibility has been passed to the individual or group. The leader stays involved to monitor progress.   Of these, no one style is considered optimal for all leaders to use all the time. Effective leaders need to be flexible, and must adapt themselves according to the situation.
  • 31.   The right leadership style will depend on the person or group being led - the follower. The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory identified four levels of Maturity M1 through M4:   M1 - They generally lack the specific skills required for the job in hand and are unable and unwilling to do or to take responsibility for this job or task.   M2 - They are still unable to take on responsibility for the task being done; however, they are willing to work at the task.   M3 - They are experienced and able to do the task but lack the confidence to take on responsibility.   M4 - They are experienced at the task, and comfortable with their own ability to do it well. They able and willing to not only do the task, but to take responsibility for the task.   Maturity Levels are also task specific. A person might be generally skilled, confident and motivated in their job, but would still have a Maturity level M2 when asked to perform a task requiring skills they don't possess.
  • 32.   Coercive Power   Reward Power   Legitimate Power   Referent Power   Expert Power
  • 33.   This type of power is based upon the idea of coercion. This involves forcing someone to do something that they do not want to do. The ultimate goal of coercion is compliance. According to Changingminds.org "demonstrations of harm are often used to illustrate what will happen if compliance is not gained".   French & Raven (1959) state that "other forms of power can also be used in coercive ways, such as when reward or expertise is withheld or referent power is used to threaten social exclusion".   The power of coercion has been proven to be related with punitive behavior that may be outside one's normal role expectations. (Hinkin & Schriesheim 1989)   However coercion has also been associated positively with generally punitive behavior and negatively associated to contingent reward behavior.(Gioia & Sims 1983) This source of power can often lead to problems and in many circumstances it involves abuse. Mindtools.com states that "coercive power can cause unhealthy behavior and dissatisfaction in the workplace". These type of leaders rely on the use of threats in their leadership style. Often the threats involve saying someone will be fired or demoted.
  • 34.   The second type of power involves having the ability to administer to another things he/she desires or to remove or decrease things he/she does not desire. (French & Raven 1959) For supervisors in an organizational setting, it is the perceived ability to present subordinates with outcomes that are valued in a positive manner. (Hinkin & Schriesheim 1989)   This type of power in based on the idea that we as a society are more prone to do things and to do them well when we are getting something out of it. Social exchange theorists as well as Power-Dependence theorists continue to focus on the idea of reward power. (Molm 1988)   The most popular forms are offering raises, promotions, and simply compliments. The problem with this according to Mindtools.com is that "when you use up available rewards, or the rewards don't have enough perceived value to others, your power weakens. (One of the frustrations with using rewards is that they often need to be bigger each time if they're to have the same motivational impact. Even then, if rewards are given frequently, people can become satisfied by the reward, such that it loses its effectiveness.)"
  • 35.   The power which holds the ability to administer to another certain feelings of obligation or the notion of responsibility. (Hinkin & Schriesheim 1989) "Rewarding and Punishing subordinates is generally seen as a legitimate part of the formal or appointed leadership role and most managerial positions in work organizations carry with them, some degree of expected reward and punishment".( Bass 1990)   Legitimate power is typically based on one's role. people are traditionally obeying the person holding this power solely based on their position or title rather than the person specifically as a leader. Therefore this type of power can easily dissolve with the loss of a position or title. This power is therefore not strong enough to be one's only form of influencing/persuading others.
  • 36.   The power of holding the ability to administer to another feelings of personal acceptance or personal approval. (Hinkin & Schriesheim 1989) This type of power is strong enough that the power-holder is often looked up to as a role model. (Raven, 1988) This power is often looked at as admiration, or charm.   The power derives from one person having an overall likability leading people to strongly identify with them in one form or another.   A person with this type of power generally makes people feel good around them therefore one has a lot of influence. The responsibility involved is heavy and one can easily lose this power, but when combined with other forms of power it can be very useful. Celebrities often have this type of power in society on the flip side they also often lose it quickly in some circumstances.
  • 37.   The ability to administer to another information, knowledge or expertise. (French & Raven 1959) Leaders who possess this type of power have high intelligence and rely on their ability to perform various organizational tasks and functions. This power makes one able to combine the power of reward in the correct fashion.   When someone has the expertise in an organization people are more convinced to trust them and to respect what they stand for. When your expertise is valued, so are your ideas, and leadership.