This document provides an overview of design processes and problem solving. It discusses various models of design processes, including linear and iterative processes. It also examines the nature of design problems and how designers approach problem solving. The document highlights that design problems often have no single clear solution and require intuition and experimentation to develop potential concepts and solutions.

1. Design Theory
Lecture 02: Design processes & problem solving
Communication &
Multimedia Design
Bas Leurs (b.l.f.leurs@hr.nl)
February 13, 2014

2. what we discussed monday...

4. Today’s programme
Design processes
Design problems & Problem solving

5. a design process describes how
you as a designer can work.
a design process describes how
you as a designer must work.

6. descriptive vs prescriptive
explain what it is,
how it works. state (authoritatively)what it should be or howa course of actions shouldbe carried out.

7. why should you have a
design process?

8. Why do you have a design process?
•To explain to the clients how you work?
•To ‘guarantee’ the outcome of a project?
•To prevent mistakes?
•To have an agreement how the team is
approaching the project?
•Because your teacher told you so?
•Because all designers do have a process?

9. experiences
objects
Functional
practical / useful
tangible: can be
perceived by
the senses
intangible: can
be perceived by
attractive / emotive
Expressive
Symbolic
Physical
Engineering
ArtDesign

10. Engineering ArtDesign
High penalty
for error
Low penalty
for error
Prescriptive use
of methods
“This is how you should
design to avoid errors”
Descriptive use
of methods
“This is how I make
my design”
Idiosyncratic or
secret methods
“I am not going to tell you
how I do it... Only the
inner circle of specialists
know how the magic
works”
People can get killed People can get hurt People can get frustrated People can get confused People can get annoyed
Industrial designCivil engineering Communication designInteraction design Art
Belief
Full control of the
physical world is
possible
Belief
Chance is the
creator of beauty
Functional Expressive

11. what is a process?

12. input process output
Hugh Dubberly (2008)
A process

13. state 1
process
a process consist of a series of actions
or steps that need to be taken to
attain a particular goal
state 2step 1 step 2 step 3 step 4

14. initial
state
process
future
state
transformation functioncurrent situation desired situation
A very basal model of design
Doblin (1987)

15. Gabriela Goldschmidt (1997)
However, from initial state to end state is not a straightforward process
initial
state
goal
state

16. A path to prefered states goes
through imagination
Ilpo Koskinen, John Zimmerman, Thomas Binder,
Johan Redstrom & Stephan Wensveen (2011)

17. their form and function, their dimensions
and appearance, were determined by
technologists-craftsmen, designers, in-
ventors, and engineers-using non-
scientific modes of thought. Carving
knives, comfortable chairs, lighting fix-
tures, and motorcycles are as they are
because over the years their designers
and makers have established shape,
style, and texture.
Many features and qualities of the ob-
jects that a technologist thinks about
cannot be reduced to unambiguous ver-
bal descriptions; they are dealt with in
his mind by a visual, nonverbal process.
His mind's eye is a well-developed organ
that not only reviews the contents of his
visual memory but also forms such new
or modified images as his thoughts re-
quire. As he thinks about a machine, rea-
soning his way through successive steps
in a dynamic process, he can turn it over
in his mind. The designer and the in-
material surroundings for, in their innu-
merable choices and decisions, tech-
nologists have determined the kind of
world we live in, in a physical sense.
Pyramids, cathedrals, and rockets exist
not because ofgeometry, theory of struc-
tures, or thermodynamics, but because
they were first a picture-literally a vi-
sion-in the minds of those who built
them (1).
This article attempts to clarify the na-
ture and significance of nonverbal
thought. It traces the development of
nonverbal thought as practiced by tech-
nologists since the Renaissance, points
to the many drawings and pictures that
have both recorded and stimulated tech-
nological developments, and reviews the
graphic inventions, such as pictorial per-
spective, that have lent system and clari-
ty to nonverbal thinking. A concluding
section considers changing attitudes to-
ward the nonverbal component of tech-
nology as they have been reflected in en-
gineering curricula and suggests some ef-
fects of such changes upon the nature of
our technology.
sweep of a suspension brid
ample, is much more than an
geometry. The distinctive
three great suspension brid
York-the Brooklyn, Georg
ton, and Verazzano Narro
more strongly the conceptua
their designers and the tim
construction than they do t
requirements of their respe
Different builders of large po
use many common elemen
designs, but certain charact
internal "style" distinguish
of one maker from those of a
opportunities for a designer
his particular way of nonverb
upon a machine or a structur
ly innumerable. This open-
cess can be seen in the desig
iar, compact machine such as
gine.
The designer of a diesel
technologist who must cont
his intuitive sense of rightn
ness. What will be the shape
bustion chamber? Can I use
The author is professor of history at the Uni-
versity ofDelaware and curtor oftechnology ofthe
Hagley Museum, Greenville, Delaware 19807.
26 AUGUST 1977
The Nature of Design
he Mind's Eye: Nonverbal
-Thought in Technology
h pictures" is an essential strand in the
history oftechnological development.
Eugene S. Ferguson
e too readily assumes
ledge may be incor-
ifacts of technology
rom science. This as-
modem folklore that
nscientific decisions,
all, made by tech-
sign the world we in-
ts of daily use have
nced by science, but
ion, their dimensions
were determined by
tsmen, designers, in-
gineers-using non-
of thought. Carving
ventor, who bring elements together in
new combinations, are each able to as-
semble and manipulate in their minds de-
vices that as yet do not exist.
If we are to understand the devel-
opment of Western technology, we must
appreciate this important, if unnoticed,
mode of thought. It has been nonverbal
thinking, by and large, that has fixed the
outlines and filled in the details of our
material surroundings for, in their innu-
merable choices and decisions, tech-
nologists have determined the kind of
world we live in, in a physical sense.
Pyramids, cathedrals, and rockets exist
There may well be only one acceptable
arrangement or configuration of a com-
plex technological device, such as a mo-
torcycle, but that arrangement is neither
self-evident nor scientifically predict-
able. The early designers of motorcycles
could not ask science to tell them where
to put engine, battery, fuel tank, and
spark coil; they had to make their choices
on other grounds (see cover). In time,
wrong choices would be revealed,
but not by scientific analysis. Making
wrong choices is the same kind of game
as making right choices; there is often no
a priori reason to do one thing rather
than another, particularly if neither had
been done before. No bell rings when the
optimum design comes to mind. Nor has
the plight of designers changed funda-
mentally in the 20th century. They must
still weigh the imponderable and sound
the unfathomable. All of our technology
has a significant intellectual component
that is both nonscientific and nonliterary.
The creative shaping process ofa tech-
nologist's mind can be seen in nearly
every man-made object that exists. The
sweep of a suspension bridge, for ex-
ample, is much more than an exercise in
geometry. The distinctive features of
three great suspension bridges in New
York-the Brooklyn, George Washing-
Ferguson (1977)
The mind’s eye

18. Research
Ideate
Embodiment
Prototype
Research
Ideate
Embodiment
Prototype
How do you call these two types of processes?

19. Research
Ideate
Embodiment
Prototype
Research
Ideate
Embodiment
Prototype
Waterfall versus Iterative

20. http://www.frankwatching.com/archive/2010/05/19/een-website-ontwerpen-met-agile-design-en-scrum-3-teams-en-overleg/
Scrum

21. let’s have a look at
some design processes

22. breaking the problem
into pieces
putting the pieces
together in a new way
testing to discover the
consequences of putting the
new arrangement into practice
analysis synthesis evaluation
John C. Jones (1970)
Classic: Analysis - Synthesis - Evaluation

23. Basic Design Cycle
Roozenburg & Eekels (1995)
Form
Function

24. VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure)
Who wants to design with
a process like this?

25. John Gero (1990)
FBS Model (Function-Behaviour-Structure)

26. Pahl & Beitz

27. planning &
clarifying
conceptual
design
embodiment detail design
concreteabstract

28. scoping
rough
concept
refined
concept
implement

29. comparison of design processes
Discover Define Design Deliver
Definition Concept Creation Implementation
Discover Define Design Develop
Discover Define Design Deliver
Specification Concept design Detail design Manufacture
Sense Interpret Decide Act
Research Ideate Embodiment Prototype
Creative explorations Idea generation Envisioning dreams Prototyping
Inspiration Direction Creation Experience
Goal Action Effect Measurement
Explore Generate Evaluate Communicate
Discover Identify Validate Articulate
Research CreateIdeate

30. Discover Define Design Deliver
Definition Concept Creation Implementation
Discover Define Design Develop
Discover Define Design Deliver
Specification Concept design Detail design Manufacture
Sense Interpret Decide Act
Research Ideate Embodiment Prototype
Creative explorations Idea generation Envisioning dreams Prototyping
Inspiration Direction Creation Experience
Goal Action Effect Measurement
Explore Generate Evaluate Communicate
Discover Identify Validate Articulate
Research CreateIdeate
Discover
Research
Specify
Inspire
Ideate
Define
Direction
Concept
Embodiment
Create
Design
Envision
Develop
Deliver
Prototype
Articulate
concretefuzzy

31. Discover
Research
Specify
Inspire
Ideate
Define
Direction
Concept
Embodiment
Create
Design
Envision
Develop
Deliver
Prototype
Articulate
What is? What if? What wows? What works?
See Jeanne Liedtka & Tim Ogilvie (2011)
? $

32. Hogeschool Rotterdam – Communication & Multimedia Design
Versie: 2 juli, 2012, Door: Saskia Best, Tim Fleumer, Bas Leurs,
Jasper Schelling, Peter van Waart
Eindkwalificaties
Communication & Multimedia Design
!
ken Verbeelden Realiseren
Concept
ontwikkelen
mpathie
Multidisciplinair
werken
Rationale &
Emotionale
Signatuur Adaptief leren
Rotterdam – Communication & Multimedia Design
door: Saskia Best, Tim Fleumer, Bas Leurs, Jasper Schelling, Peter van Waart
Onderzoeken Verbeelden Realiseren
Concept
ontwikkelen
Empathie
Multidisciplinair
werken
Rationale &
Emotionale
Signatuur Adaptief leren
Hogeschool Rotterdam – Communication & Multimedia Design
2 Juni, 2012, door: Saskia Best, Tim Fleumer, Bas Leurs, Jasper Schelling, Peter van Waart
Hogeschool Rotterdam – Communication & Multimedia Design
Versie: 2 juli, 2012, Door: Saskia Best, Tim Fleumer, Bas Leurs,
Jasper Schelling, Peter van Waart
Onderzoeken Verbeelden Realiseren
Concept
ontwikkelenHet kunnen formuleren en herformuleren van een
ontwerpvraagstuk. D.m.v. van onderzoek tot de kern
van dat vraagstuk kunnen komen. Informatie
valideren en er conclusies uit trekken als uitgang-
spunt voor het verdere ontwerpproces.
Empathie
Inleven in waarden, behoeften,
drijfveren en ambities van klanten,
en mogelijkheden tot innovatie.
Sensitief zijn voor mens en omgeving.
Open staan voor andere denk- en
levenswijzen.
Multidisciplinair
werken
Kunnen samenwerken in multidiscipli-
nair verband en in staat zijn om daarin
het (eigen) werkproces en werkomgeving
te organiseren.
Rationale &
Emotionale
Antwoord kunnen geven op de ‘waarom-
ontwerpbeslissingen. De mens centraal
stellen in alle ontwerpkeuzes en deze
onderbouwen op basis van onderzoek,
theorie, best practices en intuïtie.
Signatuur
Het hebben van een eigenwijze en
eigentijdse kijk op ontwerpvraa-
gstukken en bijbehorende oplossin-
gen en deze visie kunnen uitdragen
en delen met anderen.
Adaptief leren
Voortdurend leerdoelen formuleren
door te reflecteren op leerproces,
werkproces en veranderende con-
text. Inspelen op kansen en ontwik-
kelingen.
Mogelijkheden bedenken om waarde te
creëren voor gebruiker en opdrachtgever.
Doelbewust experimenteren, grenzen
opzoeken en overschrijden om te komen tot
niet voor de hand liggende concepten.
Vormgeven van plannen, ideeën en visies.
Overtuigen en verleiden met inspirerende
visualisaties, prototypes, verhalen en
presentaties.
Ideeën uitwerken naar betekenisvolle
interactieve producten, diensten en
belevingen. Aandacht hebben voor detail
zonder de grote lijn uit het oog te verliezen.
Verzorgd kunnen werken en op tijd leveren.
Creatief kunnen omgaan met beperkingen,
vasthoudend zijn, doorzetten.
Eindkwalificaties: Communication & Multimedia Design

34. The primary generator
Jane Darke (1979)
Darke describes a primary generator as: a particular
objective that is strongly valued and self-imposed, which
heavily relies on subjective judgment. A primary generator
serves as a starting point and gives the process a direction.

35. “It's
weird
to
say
it.
We
say…
Wow!
This
is
a
universe,
it's
their
own
world,
they
have
a
campus'.
We
are
creating
a
universe...
it's
Universe
Twente.
We
started
walking
around
like
Star
Trek,
we're
going
to
create
an
independent
world!
These
were
some
@irst
thoughts.”
Liza Enebeis (Studio Dumbar) explaining the primary generator of the visual identity of University of Twente
An example of a primary generator

36. DNA of University of Twente

37. ideasresearch
fuzzy front end
concept prototype product

38. Hugh Dubberly, Shelley Evenson & Rick Robinson (2008)
Analysis-Synthesis Bridge Model

39. Zie N@tschool

40. PROBLEMS

41. What is
a MFP?

42. Major F cking Problem
MFP
=
MFP-tje = Minor F*cking Problem

43. the architecture of
problems

44. what is a
problem?

45. Wayne Booth, Gregory Colomb and Joseph Williams (1995)
A (practical) problem is caused by
some condition in the world that
makes us unhappy because it costs us
time, respect, security, pain, money
or even our lives.
A conceptual problem
arises when we simply
do not understand
something about the
world as well as we
would like.
Problems consist of two elements:
undesirable
consequences
caused by that condition
a situation
or condition +

46. what is a
design problem?

47. design is about ‘fit’
or misfit... and hence solved
by appropriation

48. Sometimes (or often) there is a misfit between “use
plans” and users (Houkes & Vermaas, 2006).
Because “use plans” are aimed towards pre-
determined product use.
However, users appropriate the artefacts that they
use and neglect the intentions that were enscribed
by the designer.
Let’s have a look at product use
product user

49. retrofitted

50. alteration

51. Ikea Hacks
http://www.ikeahackers.net/2011/01/best-hack-of-2010-your-vote-needed.html
hacking

53. fiets parasol voor de warme zomerdagen ook te gebruiken voor regen
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8HTFK75cpHY

54. A tool addresses human needs by amplifying human capabilities.
Bret Victor (2011)
worrydream.com/#!/ABriefRantOnTheFutureOfInteractionDesign

55. Product
Problem
User
Business
fitFIT
fit
FIT
fitFIT
Design problems occur when there is a misfit between one of these relations

57. John Restrepo & Henri Christiaans (2003)
Design as a unique type of problem solving
Design is a unique type of problem solving. It is the maximum expression of
human intelligence and the prototypical case of cognition, as it requires devising
future states of the world (goals), recognizing current ones (initial states) and
finding paths to bridge both (transformation functions).
initial state future statetransformation function

58. However, because of the very nature of design problems,
there is very often very little information about the problem,
even less information about the goal (solution) and absolutely
no information about the transformation function.
John Restrepo, Henri Christiaans (2003)
initial state future statetransformation function

59. “Design problems are largely
underdetermined”
Kees Dorst (2006)
“Design problems in general can be
characterized as not being subject to
systematisation, incomplete, and vague.”
John Restrepo, Henri Christiaans (2003)
So... the problem with design problems is:

60. Horst Rittel & Melvin Webber (1973)
Design problems are also decribed as:
Herbert Simon (1973)
ill-defined or ill-structured problems
wicked problems
The kinds of problems that planners
deal with – societal problems – are
inherently different from the
problems that scientists and perhaps
some classes of engineers deal with.
Planning problems are inherently
wicked.

61. Horst Rittel & Melvin Webber (1973)
1. There is no definitive formulation of a wicked problem
2. Wicked problems have no stopping rule
3. Solutions to wicked problems are not true-or-false, but good-or-bad
4. There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked problem
5. Every solution to a wicked problem is a "one-shot operation"; because there
is no opportunity to learn by trial-and-error, every attempt counts significantly
6. Wicked problems do not have an enumerable (or an exhaustively
describable) set of potential solutions, nor is there a well-described set of
permissible operations that may be incorporated into the plan
7. Every wicked problem is essentially unique
8. Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another
problem
9. The existence of a discrepancy representing a wicked problem can be
explained in numerous ways. The choice of explanation determines the
nature of the problem's resolution
10. The planner has no right to be wrong
Properties of wicked problems

62. A design has to be perfect!

63. Designs don't have to be optimal
or perfect: results that are not
quite optimum or less than perfect
are often completely satisfactory
for everyday usage. No
everyday product is perfect, nor
need they be.
Donald Norman (2010)

64. “Designing is satisficing,
finding an acceptable
solution.”
Herbert Simon (1995)

65. Satisficing
"Since there did not seem to be any word in
English for decision methods that look for good or
satisfactory solutions instead of optimal ones, some
years ago I introduced the term ‘satisficing’ to
refer to such procedures." (p. 119)
Satisfy + Suffice
Herbert Simon (1995)

66. the mechanisms
of design problems

67. Design is a game, with unknown
rules that become apparent once you
have explored the problem and
solution space simultaniously.

69. In design ‘perfect’ solutions do not exist.
Simply because we do not know what the
perfect solution is.

70. Science students Architecture students
The renowned experiment by Bryan Lawson (1979)

71. The renowned experiment by Bryan Lawson (1979)
During the session participants had
access to a computer to get help or
to verify their solutions.
There were some ‘game rules’ that
were not apparent to the participant,
but stored in a computer program.

72. Science students Architecture students
The renowned experiment by Bryan Lawson (1979)
Adopted a problem
focusing strategy
Made fewer structural errors
Adopted a solution
focusing strategy
Made fewer planning errors

73. Scientists versus Designers
problem focused solution focused

74. The problem- and solution space are interwoven. Solution
conjectures are helpful to explore and understand the
problemspace
Co-evolution of problem–solution
Kees Dorst (2001)

75. now... a bit of a
different problem
solving approach

76. Situation
30,000 young people
Every Friday and Saturday
night)
Problems
Binge drinking, fights,
pickpocketing and drugs
related crime
Dorst & Tomkin (2011)

77. What would Ivo do?
More... surveillance!!!
Enforce the law... strictly!!!
Higher... penalties
The grumpy old man method

78. “The countermeasures that have been taken over
the years have created a slightly grim
environment, and don’t seem to help much in
preventing crimes and anti social behavior.
Increasing the police presence beyond the current
level is not an attractive option.”
Dorst & Tomkin (2011)

79. What would you organize if
you were organizing a
music festival?
These are young people
wanting to have a good
time, not hard core
criminals. But a crowd of
30,000 young people, that
could be compared to a
good-sized music festival
Dorst & Tomkin (2011)

80. reframing

81. “'Framing' is the term commonly used for the
creation of a novel standpoint from which a
problematic situation can be tackled — this
includes perceiving the situation in a certain way,
adopting certain concepts to describe the
situation, patterns of reasoning and problem
solving that are associated with that way of
seeing, leading to the possibilty to act within that
situation.”
Dorst & Tomkin (2011)

85. Salut!
Please return
the cards!
Next lecture:
Design as Learning
Design Methods & Tools