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K13-CE-19
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SZAB
KHAIRPUR MIR’S
NAME: LATIF HYDER WADHO
BATCH: 13
ROLL NO: K13-CE-19
Assignment: Geological Terms
1 – Folds and Its types
2- Faults
3-Zones of Earthquakes
4-Ground Water
5- Aquifer
6- Tunnel
7- Earthquake Zones in Pakistan
Assigned By: Sir Heemu Karira
Date: 26/3/2014
MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING
AND TECHNOLOGY SZAB CAMPUS
KHAIRPUR MIR’S
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

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K13-CE-19
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SZAB
KHAIRPUR MIR’S
1-Folds
A fold is when the earth’s crust is pushed up from its sides
There are six types of folds that may occur:
1. Anticline
2. Syncline
3. Tight Fold
4. Over fold
5. Recumbent Fold
6. Nappe Fold
1.Anticline
An anticline occurs when a tectonic plate is compressed by movement of
other plates. This causes the center of the compressed plate to bend in
an upwards motion.
Fold Mountains are formed when the crust is pushed up as tectonic plates
collide. When formed, these mountains are usually enormous like the
newly formed Rocky Mountains in Western Canada and the United States
To the top right is a picture of an anticline. Beneath is a picture of the
Rocky Mountains.

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K13-CE-19
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SZAB
KHAIRPUR MIR’S
2.Syncline
A syncline is similar to an anticline, in that it is formed by the
compression of a tectonic plate. However, a syncline occurs when the
plate bends in a downward motion.
The lowest part of the syncline is known as the trough.
To the top right is a diagram of a syncline fold (The bottom of the fold
center is the trough). Beneath, is an example of a syncline in California.
Can you distinguish the trough in this picture?
3.Tight Fold
A tight fold is a sharp peaked anticline or syncline.
It is just a regular anticline or syncline, but was compressed with a greater
force causing the angle to be much smaller.
Folds such as these occur to form steep mountain slopes like those in
Whistler, British Columbia.
To the left is a photo of a tight fold formed by extreme pressure on these
rocks.
4.Over fold
An over fold takes place when folding rock becomes bent or warped.

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K13-CE-19
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SZAB
KHAIRPUR MIR’S
Sometimes the folds can become so disfigured that they may even
overlap each other.
An example of over folding is shown in the diagram below.
5.Recumbent Fold
This type of fold is compressed so much that it is no longer vertical.
There is a large extent of overlapping and it can take the form of an “s”.
To the right is a diagram that shows the process of recumbent folding
6.Nappe Fold
This fold is similar to a recumbent fold because of the extent of folding
and overlapping. However, nappe folding becomes so overturned that
rock layers become fractured.
To the right is a picture of someone standing under a fractured fold.

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K13-CE-19
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SZAB
KHAIRPUR MIR’S
2-FAULTS
A fault is when tension and compression associated with plate movement is so
great that blocks of rock fracture or break apart. This process can occur very
rapidly, in the form of earthquakes. The damage caused by this event can be
very destructive and cause severe changes to the earths surface.
There are five types of faults that can occur:
1. Normal Fault
2. Reverse Fault
3. Tear Fault
4. Rift Valley
5. Horst Fault
1.Normal Fault
This occurs when rocks move away from each other due to the land
moving apart.
When the rocks move apart, the side with the less stable tectonic plate
drops below the side with the more stable plate.
On the top right is the movement of a normal fault. A picture is also
shown below. Notice the displacement of the different types of rock on
each side of the fault.

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K13-CE-19
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SZAB
KHAIRPUR MIR’S
2.Reverse Fault
Reverse faults are the opposite of normal faults. Rocks are compressed
such that one plate moves up while the other descends below it.
When plates compress and crack, usually the more dense one is forced
under the less dense one. This is similar to the action of the continental
crust colliding with the oceanic crust. Here the more dense crust, being
the oceanic crust is forced under the continental crust.
To the right is an animation of a reverse fault. Below that is a real picture
of what a reverse fault looks like.
3.Tear Fault
A tear fault, also known as a transform fault, occurs when two tectonic
plates slide in a lateral motion past each other.
This type of fault causes the most severe earthquakes because they grind
against each other. These earthquakes can either be shallow or deep and
cause tremors over a short or long period of time.
Tear faults can occur frequently, especially along the coast of California.

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K13-CE-19
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SZAB
KHAIRPUR MIR’S
4.Rift Valley
A rift valley is when two normal faults occur parallel to each other and the
land sinks between the faults.
There are two major examples of this. One being the Great Rift Valley in
North Africa and the other, the San Andreas Fault in California.
The top right picture is San Andreas Fault and on the bottom right is a
diagram of what a rift valley looks like
5. Horst Fault

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K13-CE-19
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SZAB
KHAIRPUR MIR’S
A Horst is the opposite of a rift valley. The land between the parallel
faults is forced upward because the two faults are being pushed together.
This process can take a long time to occur because the average plate
movement is one inch per year.
There are examples of horst faults on the left.
3-Zones of Earth
From seismic studies it is known that the Earth is composed of several layers,
somewhat like the layers of an onion.
The outermost layer is the crust, composed mainly of compounds of aluminum
and silicates.
The next layer is the mantle, composed mainly of rocks containing iron and
magnesium silicates.
The innermost layer is the core, made up of mostly iron and nickel.

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K13-CE-19
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SZAB
KHAIRPUR MIR’S
THE ‘SPHERES’ OF EARTH
The crust and the upper portion of the mantle are together known as the
‘lithosphere.’
Much of Earth is covered by a layer of water or ice called the ‘hydrosphere’.
The thin layer of air that surrounds the Earth is the ‘atmosphere’.
The portion of the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and solid land where life exists is
together known as the ‘biosphere’.
EARTH’S MANTLE
Unlike the crust, which is mostly hard rock, the mantle is a highly viscous plastic-
like material that can flow.
The molten mass in the mantle is in constant motion, which makes the
continental plates move.
The mantle is also the place where most gemstones such as diamonds and
garnets are formed.

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CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SZAB
KHAIRPUR MIR’S
EARTH’S CORE
The core is divided into two layers, the outer core and the inner core.
Mainly made up of iron and nickel.
Temperatures range from 4,000C to 7,500C.
The outer core and the inner core together produce Earth’s magnetism.
Earth’s magnetism is what makes the magnetic compass work.

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K13-CE-19
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SZAB
KHAIRPUR MIR’S
4-Ground Water
Groundwater lies beneath the surface of the earth, but is affected by surface supply
Groundwater is affected by changes to all of the earth
Earth’s spheres due to linkage through the hydrologic cycle
Percolation
Water percolates downward through permeable rock through the zone of
aeration rock pores are unsaturated by water, many contain air Water then
accumulates in the zone of saturation
all rock pores contain water The water table is the upper surface of the zone of
saturation its surface follows the contours of the ground above the water table
controls the movement of surface water
Porosity describes the size, shape, arrangement, cementation, and compaction of subsurface
material Permeable/Impermeable whether or not a subsurface structure permits the flow of
water.
Groundwater mining 
The act of removing water from an aquifer at a rate greater than its flow and
recharge capacities Collapsing aquifers: water in aquifers often provide support
for the porous rock, its removal could result in the rock collapsing, in which case
the capacity of the aquifer is greatly reduced.
Groundwater comprises a large percentage of freshwater resources
5- Aquifer
A layer of rock that is permeable to water flow in useable amounts
unconsolidated aquifer: loose sand and gravel consolidated aquifer: porous
rock, often sandstone or limestone

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K13-CE-19
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SZAB
KHAIRPUR MIR’S
Confined Aquifer 
A layer of permeable rock between two impermeable layers �An aquifer
between two aquicludes 
Unconfined Aquifer 
An aquifer without an overlying aquiclude 
Perched Aquifer 
An aquifer created by a small aquiclude at a higher level than the water table
6- Tunnel
A tunnel is an underground or underwater passage way, enclosed except for
entrance and exit, commonly at each end. A tunnel is relatively long and
narrow; the length is often much greater than twice the diameter.

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K13-CE-19
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SZAB
KHAIRPUR MIR’S
7- Earthquake Zones in Pakistan
Followings are the major affected earthquake zones of Pakistan
1-KASHMIR EARTHQUAKE
OCTOBER 8, 2005 8:50 AM OCTOBER 8, 2005
Magnitude 7.6
10 KM (6 MI) DEPTH
79,000 DEAD IN PAKISTAN
3 MILLION HOMELESS
2- Shahbandar sindh Magnitude 8
3-Kahan Baluchistan Magnitude 8
4-Sibi Baluchistan Magnitude 7
5-Muzaffarabad Magnitude 7.8
6-Hunza Magnitude 6.2
7-Ziarat Disstt Quetta Magnitude 6.4
8- Awran Baluchistan Magnitude 7.8
The 2013 Earthquake
The 2013 Pakistan Earthquake was a Magnitude 7.7 that Took Place on 24
September, with an epicenter 66 km north-northeast of Awaran in the Province
of Baluchistan At Least 825 were killed
-THE END-