M.sc Ist yr

1. “Topic of Presentation”
‘Application of theories of Language acquisition
to assessment in child language disorder’
Submitted To:
Ms Shanthi
Submitted By:
Kumar Manglam
MASLP 1st year

2. •Introduction:-
There are numerous theories of language and only a few of them has had
an impact on language disorders in children. A review of the literature in
language disorders both the present and the past reveal 6 major
approaches to language learning. These are the Neurophysiological,
Information process, Behavioural, Cognitive organization, Linguistic and
Pragmatic theories. Each of these has played a special role in the
categorization, assessment and the intervention of language disorders in
children.
But in assessment with these theories we assess to child with language
disorders

3. There are following six theories:-
1) Neurophysiological Theory
2) Behavioural Theory
3) Linguistic Theory
4) Cognitive organization Theory
5) Information Process Theory
6) Pragmatic Theory
7) Social Interaction Theory

4. Application of Assessment of Theories
1) Neurophysiological Theory:- This theory describes the relation
between brain and language and even more specifically brain
impairment and language disorders. The basic of this perspective is
the Neuroanatomy and the pathophysiology of the cognitive
processes. Neurolinguistic capacity develops in individual that occur
in a fixed and overlapping sequence.

5. Language Assessment:-
• The neuropsychological theory uses the process of evaluating and studying
children’s language with the intent of differentiating problems related to brain
dysfunction from other types of language disorders, originally termed as
differential diagnosis. Specific concern with the differential diagnosis is with the
child’s neurological system- the procedures of identifying the etiology as well as
the positive and the negative signs of brain damage.
• Assessment according to this theory is a process by which major categories of
disorders associated with language delay are differentiated on the basis of
symptomatology. In the beginning of differential diagnosis, the major categories
were considered to be hearing loss, emotional disturbances, mental retardation and
aphasia. Recent categories include verbal auditory agnosia, autism, a
predominantly expressive syndrome and a semantic pragmatic syndrome (Rapin &
Allen, 1983)

6. • The method of study of children according to this theory is by
observing and describing a wide variety of behaviours –cognitive,
motor, linguistic, visual and auditory – and relating the findings to
specific brain pathologies. The study of both comprehension and
expression is an integral part of the assessment, since difference
between them is neurologically indicated and performance difference in
these processes is one of the main ways in which the categories of
language disorders are differentiated.
• The major assumption in categorical assessment is that is important
from the standpoint of intervention to understand the reason why a
child’s language is delayed. Different kinds of disorders are associated
with different kinds of language learning problems, and so the approach
to intervention group vs. individual, direct vs. indirect, cognitive vs.
linguistic – is dependent on the nature of language delay and other
problems associated with disorders of various categories.

7. Contributions:
• Stress importance of assessing child’s neurological functioning.
• Identified pattern of language disorder by symptomatology similar to
that in aphasia.
• Categorize neurological disorders into those of mental retardation,
autism and central auditory processing.
• Emphasizes importance of measuring both comprehension and
expression.
• Provides means for educational placement.

8. Limitations and criticism:
• Leads to emphasis on labelling
• Categories mask individual difference with class
• Does not include detailed language analysis.
• Ignores role of environment in language and therefore in assessment.

9. 2. Behavioural Theory:- The major theme has been that language
behaviour is learned when an individual (mother, caretaker etc)
provided a stimulus, usually verbal, to which a child responds
verbally and the child’s response is reinforced. According to the
behavioural theory, the characteristics of the stimulus and
reinforcement direct the level, speed and adequacy of the language
behaviour that is learned by the child. Another factor that has been
proposed to influence learning is the degree of identification of the
child with the caretaker (Mowrer 1958, 60).

10. Language assessment
• The essence of assessment, according to behavioural theory is the clinician’s
judgment of the inadequacy of a child’s language ability based on performance
(what the child does), compared with what the child should be doing.
• Behavioural theory dictates what should and what should not evaluated in
language assessment (Gray & Ryan; 1973). Because behavioural theory
emphasizes that the teaching activity with the language disordered children should
be focused only on expressive language (the product) only. There is no need for
the examiner to study auditory or visual processing skills, cognition or even the
comprehension language. According to this theory there is no reason for the
examiner to determine the cause of the disorder because the language training that
will be used is the same regardless of cause. The child is taught to do what he or
she cannot do.

11. • The use of development stages in language is not essential to the
assessment of the problem according to the behavioural theory, because
the deficit area will be remedied regardless of what language structure
precedes or follow it.
• Instead of using standardized instruments for evaluation, the behaviour
prefers the use of criterion tests. These tests describe performance skills
that experts believe children should have mastered at specific levels of
development. The point at which the child performs successfully is
termed as the baseline, below which are the behaviours that a child has,
and above which are those the child does not have.
• Because reinforcement is an integral part of the behavioural theory, it is
important in the assessment of children with language disorders to
determine what types of reinforces will be effective with each child and
the approximate schedule of reinforcement that will be needed.

12. Contributions:
• Encourages task – oriented descriptions of language behaviour.
• Specifies language differences from adult norm in assessment.
• Obtains base line data for measuring change.
• Classified all language disorders into homogenous category.
• Studies the variables that serve to reinforce behaviour for a child.
• Ignores the analysis of any factors that may cause or maintain disorder.
• Does not make use of development language data in assessment.
• Does not consider comprehension problem as factors for assessment.
• Considers language, as independent from cognitive or motor skills,
therefore does not include these in assessment.

13. 3. Linguistic Theory:- Although linguistic theory has been
continuously modified since Chomsky first described generative
grammar in 1957, several strains of thought have remained
somewhat constant.
• According to linguistic theory, what is known as language is a system of
abstract rules; the behaviour called language is generated from this
knowledge. The linguistic component of the human learning system is
independent and distinctive from other cognitive functions.

14. Language Assessment:-
The objective of the assessment in the linguistic theory is the description
of the linguistic behaviour – the extent to which the child applies the rule
of semantics, syntax and pragmatics, the language output is compared
with normal developmental sequences in language. Because the emphasis
is on the analysis of language performance, the focus of intervention and
assessment is on expressive rather than receptive language.

15. • According to this theory the language system is independent and
different from other cognitive systems therefore assessment does not
include the study of cognitive skills in isolation.
• Because of the biologically determined nature of language
emergence, language ‘happens’ in stages that are basically orderly,
regular and predictable. The major task in assessing language is that of
describing in detail the orderly progression of all aspects of language-
the phonemic. Morphemic, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic and
observable variables those modify this progression.
• The language aspects are studied by analysis of the language
expression or out put of the individual directly.
• Linguistic theory focuses on the rule aspect of language, the
operational knowledge from which the surface structure is generated.

16. • Because of the emphasis on rule aspect of language disorders functions on the
basis that the observed differences in performance of specific children are related
to problems, in rule development. Linguistic theory is not concerned as to why the
rules have not been induced by the child simply judge from the corpus of language
takes from the child’s rule system.
• According to Bloom, 1970, a child’s meaning is not always clear from the study of
surface structure only and that two and three word combination can signal many
different grammatical meanings when used in different contexts has led to the
evaluation of the content word combinations as children use them in the actual
situation.
• Because language is considered to be a biologically determined behaviour, the role
of the child is an active one and the role of the environment is minimal, serving to
trigger or set in motion the mechanisms that induce the rules and incorporate them
into a system. Assessment in linguistic theory focuses accordingly on the child and
his or her production and not to any large extent on the forces in the environment.

17. Contributions:
• Examines language in a naturalistic setting.
• Describes language by analyzing samples of language behaviour.
• Uses normal development data for the analysis of syntax and
semantics.
• Searches for rule based problems.
• Emphasis child- oriented assessment.
• Stresses continuity between assessment and intervention.
• Uses indices for comparison derived from language sample e.g.
MLU.
• Emphasizes analysis of language production.
• Uses stage rather than age for comparison.

18. Limitations:
• Leads to difficulties in execution because of tine constraints in certain
settings.
• Lacks indices of variability for developmental data.
• Causes difficulty in distinguishing normal from disordered language.
• Gives less importance to comprehension than expression.
• Fails to integrate linguistic data cognitive status of the child.

19. 4) Cognitive Organization Theory:-
• This theory (Kirk, 1983) describes cognition as a constellation of
perceptual, conceptual affective and linguistic elements in other words
language is a separated function but similar in structure to other
cognitive attributes and skills.
• According to this theory the procedures and stages through which
language passes are basically the same as those of other cognitive tasks
and language is related to these task developmentally. A prominent
proponent of the cognitive organization viewpoint is that it considered
language as a separate but equal partner with other cognitive skills.

20. Language assessment:-
This theory considers language to be one of the many cognitive abilities
or takes that are independent but interrelated and similar in structure. The
major cognitive abilities are similar in that they are dependent on the
same learning skills for their development – problem solving, pattern
recognition, cumulative relations and learning strategies of learning and
doing.
The assessment of language disorders if executed within the framework
of cognitive organization theory must evaluate the above cognitive skills
as these relate to major cognitive tasks or abilities as well as to oral
language. To put this theory into assessment practice, the specialist
examines how the child

21. solves language problems – how he or she discriminates, generalizes and
infers both with respect to surface grammatical structures as well as to
word combinations that relate to complex meanings and how he or she
can make use of organization present in the input received.
The specialist needs to evaluate the adequacy of the language rules and
test the child’s ability to make new rules; thirdly, the specialist
determines the child’s ability to recognize knowledge when he or she
learns something new and to use the recognized information in
performing new language tasks. Fourth, the evaluator observes the child’s
ability to relate the different aspects of language to each other and the
effect of change one has on performance in the other, rule efficiency is
compared with performance efficiency. Lastly, the specialist studies the
manner in which the child organizes external data and the strategies and
avenues the child uses to internalize it.

22. Contributions:
• Includes the assessment of cognitive skills as part of language evaluation.
• Recognizes need to study both rule formation and performance skill in language
• Studies performance under constraints such as increased length and complexity of
utterance and under stressful conditions.
• Compares comprehension and expression in terms of knowledge commonalities
and performance differences.
• Studies the relation between cognition and language in the child.
• Distinguishes cause of language disorder as a function of linguistic or the
cognitive system if the interaction between the two.
• Studies all modalities to explore similarities and difference in performance.

23. Limitations and Criticism:
• Leads to difficulty in execution because of time constraints in studying
cognition and language
• Tends to be cause oriented rather than task oriented
• Fails to recognize language as a unique system and therefore limits the
analysis of language
• Fails to recognize the aspects of linguistics system which appears to be
independent of the cognitive prerequisites.

24. 5) Information Process Theory:-
The work of Kirk, Mc Cathy (1968) and by Wepman, Jones, Boek and
Vanpelt (1960) expanded the theory by describing in detail a process by
which the language code is received by which the language code is
received by the human cognitive system, translated to meaning, encoded
back into the linguistic system and uttered as speech. This theory led to
the development of many standardized tests in many of the processing
areas.
• Behavioral involvement in language
• Described process of language and the disorders without analysis of
brain and cognition….

25. Coded language Cognitive system
Speech Encoded Translated to meaning
Language assessment:-
Assessment procedures in the information theory are primarily directed
towards identifying the child’s processing strengths and weakness on a
hierarchical scale of cognitive and linguistic skills.

26. • Using the information-processing model a language specialist describes
the language process in terms of input and output process, auditory,
visual and tactile modalities, reflex, perceptual and representation
levels. Assessment involves the measurement of the language
disordered child’s functioning at each of the processes, modalities and
levels (Carrow, 1972).
• According to this theory information regarding the child’s strengths
and weaknesses with respect to his language disorder, would help in
planning the intervention program.
• This theory separates the input functions (receptive) or language from
the output functions (expressive). The common bound between these
two processes is at two processes is at two levels –perceptual motor
levels and the representational or integration level.

27. • The role of cognitive processes such as memory and perception is
important in the information processing theory. The processes serve as a
basis for the development of language.
Limitations and criticisms:
• Obtains data not always applicable to intervention
• Omit a detailed analysis of language.
• Emphasizes processing skills causing imbalance in assessment.
• Relies exclusively on standardized instruments.
• Ignores the dynamic quality of language.
• Ignores the naturalistic aspect of language.

28. 6) Pragmatic Theory:-
Pragmatic theory considers the basic function of language to be
communication and its basic unit to be the speech act that occurs in
contact. The speech act includes the interaction of the speaker and the
desired effect of the listener. Semantics and syntax are derived ultimately
from pragmatics; the manner in which they function in the speaker-
listener dialogue determines their adequacy. The performance of a speech
act is behaviour governed by pragmatic rules and is based on adequate
semantic use.
Language assessment:-
For a message to serve its function it must be received and received
accurately therefore it must be spoken according to communication rules
that are accepted by the society.

29. • The assessment of language from a pragmatic perspective increases the
range of relevant behaviours that need to be evaluated by a hundred
folds. Targets for assessment include the speaker, his or her intentions,
knowledge and use of linguistic rules, his or her knowledge and the use
of communication rules, the listener and the context variations that have
an effect on the speaker coding of the message and the manner in which
the speaker responds to these variations.
• Geffner 1981 says that a pragmatic approach to assessment includes the
interpretation of the child’s utterance, the meaning intended by the
child, the sensory motor actions that proceed, accompany and follow
the utterance; the knowledge shared in the communication.
• Some of the consider semantics to be the core of adequate
communication. They say that the child must know not only the
referential meaning of words but also be able to identify figurative and
idiomatic notations.

30. • Comprehension plays a significant role in pragmatic theory as far as
the effectiveness of language exchange between persons involves
accuracy in understanding as well as in speaking. if, comprehension is
not accurate the corresponding production will also not be accurate in
terms of the message being transmitted therefore assessment of
comprehension is an integral part of pragmatic theory.
Contributions:
• Studied language acts within the framework of context
• Considers language as dynamic and therefore examines it in action i.e.
the speech act
• Examines the adequacy of the relation between intentions and
messages.

31. • Studies social aspect of behaviour in relation to language through examination of
pre linguistic and extra linguistic aspects.
• Examines the interaction of child with the environment and the role the interaction
plays in language behaviour.
• Studies the effectiveness of language in executing pragmatic functions.
• Examines pragmatic skills that undergrad the use of language in interactive
exchange.
Limitations:
• Lacks normative data on pragmatic skills
• Leads to difficulty in separating normal from disordered behaviour
• Exclusive emphasis on pragmatic skill deficiency may cause other problems to be
over looked.
• Does not provide a way of integrating syntactic information in assessment.

32. 7) Social Interaction Theory:-
Social interaction theories emphasize communicative purpose over
language structure and the importance of context. This is because the
rules of social communication differ from those of linguistic structure.
Rather than being static representations, social interactions vary with the
situations in which they occur.
Language develops, not because of any innate linguistic competence or
because of strict reinforcement principles, but because – the human
beings are motivated to interact socially and to develop concepts of self
and others.

33. Language Assessment:-
• Recognizing the limitations of earlier form-based linguistic approaches, Lucas
(1980) recommended looking at children with language disorders – as potentially
having a disruption in one of four areas
* Developing the rules,
* Establishing a desire or motivational cause for having an intent– to linguistically
express,
* Having a need to communicate to a hearer and/or,
* Being capable of participating in the active process.

34. • Assessment tied to social interaction theory can be designed to
uncover which of these sources of difficulty might be active for a
particular child. Assessment aimed at outlining the parameters of a
child’s ZPD for a particular activity involves, figuring out how much
and what kinds of supports (scaffolds) will assist the child
* To make connections,
* Draw conclusions, and
* Produce responses that were impossible without the support.

35. • The idea is to start with a baseline observation in a condition of no
support – gradually offer minimal supports – increase them as necessary
– making independent slowly – withdrawing the support to see what the
child can now do within similar problem situation. This cycle has been
called the test-intervene-retest format (Schneider & Watkins, 1996).

36. THANKYOU