This slide provide the introduction to the computer , instruction formats and their execution, Common Bus System , Instruction Cycle, Hardwired Control Unit and I/O operation and handling of interrupt

1. Description of basic Computer
Instruction Format and their execution
Common Bus System
Instruction Cycle
Hardwired Control Unit
IO Configuration and IO handling
Basic Computer
Organization and Design

2. Description of basic computer
 Computers are the digital devices that performs the
various computational task.
 Digital means there is the process of representing the
information by the help of the certain discrete
values.
 Information is represented in digital computers in
terms of bits.
 By various coding techniques these groups of bits can
not only represent numbers but also other discrete
symbols.

3. Description of basic computer
 A computer system is sub-divided into two
functional entities: hardware and software.
 Hardware consists of all electronics components.
 Software consists of instruction and data that the
computer manipulate to perform various tasks.

4. Description of basic computer

5. Description of basic computer
 Application software is all the computer software
that causes a computer to perform useful tasks
beyond the running of the computer itself.
 System software is computer software designed to
operate and control the computer hardware and to
provide a platform for running application software.
 Computer hardware is the collection of physical
elements that comprise a computer system

6. Description of basic computer

7. Description of basic computer
 Hardware consist of three major parts:
 CPU: It has ALU for manipulating data, registers for storing
data and control circuit for generating control signals.
 Memory: It store instruction and data.
 I/O Processor: It contain electronic circuit for communicating
and controlling information flow between computer and input
or output devices.

8. Description of basic computer
 Computer organization is concerned with the way
hardware operate and the way the way they are
connected together to form the computer system.
 Computer architecture is concerned with the
structure and behavior of computers as seen by the
user. It includes information formats, the instruction
set and technique for addressing memory.

9. Instruction Code
 It is a group of bits that instruct the computer to
perform a specific task.
 It contains various parts one of them is the opcode to
specify the type of operation to be performed.
 Another field is the address field which is used to
specify the operand address on which the operation
is to be done.

10. Stored Program Organization

11. Indirect Address
 In direct address the address field in the instruction
gives the address of the operand,
 In case of the indirect address, the address in the
address field gives an address of the memory word in
which address operand is found.
 Direct and indirect address are separated by bit I. I is
1 for indirect and o for direct.

13. Effective Address
 It is the address of the actual operand.
 In direct address, content of the address field gives
the effective address which is 457 in the given
example.
 In indirect address, the word in the memory address
specified in the address field gives the effective
address which is 1350 in the given example.

14. Computer Register

15. Computer Registers

16. Common Bus System
 The basic computer has eight register, memory unit
and control unit.
 Path must be provided to transfer information from
one register to another and from memory to the
register.
 The number of wires will be excessive if the
connection is made between the output of each
register and input of other.
 A more efficient scheme in transferring information
in a system having many register is to use a common
bus.

18. Common Bus System
 The outputs of seven registers and memory are
connected to the common bus.
 The specific output that is selected for the bus lines
at any given time is determined from the binary
value of the selection variables S2,S1 and S0.
 The numbers along each output shows the decimal
equivalent of the required binary selection.
 The lines from the common bus are connected to the
inputs of each register and data input of the memory.

19. Common Bus System
 The particular register whose LD(load) input is
enabled receives the data from the bus during the
next clock transition.
 The memory receives the content of the bus when its
write input is activated.

20. Basic Instruction Format

21. Basic Instruction Format
 A memory reference instruction uses 12 bits to
specify the an address and one bit to specify the
addressing mode.
 A register reference instruction specifies an
operation on or a test of the AC register. 12 bits are
used to specify the operation or test to be executed.
 In the case of i/o instruction also 12 bits are used to
specify the type of i/o operation or test performed.

22. Basic Instruction Format
 Hex code of i/o instruction starts with F.
 Hex code of register reference instruction starts with
the 7.
 Hex code of direct memory reference instruction
starts with 0-6.
 Hex code of indirect memory reference instruction
starts with 8-E.

23. Instruction Set Completeness
 The set of instruction are said to complete if the
computer includes sufficient number of instruction
in each of the following categories.
 Arithmetic, logical and shift instruction.
 Instruction for moving information to and from memory and
processor registers.
 Program control instructions together with instruction that
check the status conditions.
 Input and output instructions.

24. Timing and Control
 The timing for all registers in the basic computer is
controlled by the master clock generator.
 The clock pulsed are applied to all the flip flops and
registers in the system.
 The clock pulses do not change the state of register
unless enabled by control signals.
 These signals are generated in the control unit.
 There are two major types of control organization:
hardwired control and micro programmed control.

25. Timing and Control
 In hardwired control, the control logic is
implemented with gates, flip flops, decoders and
other digital circuits.
 In micro programmed organization, the control
information is stored in a control memory. The
control memory is programmed to initiate the
required sequence of micro operation.

26. Hardwired Control Unit

27. Hardwired Control Unit
 It consists of two decoders , sequence counter and
number of control logic gates.
 An instruction read from memory is places in IR.
 Opcode of the instruction derives one of the output
of opcode decoder high.
 At first SC is cleared to zero. As the first clock pulse
hits the output of counter and hence counter decoder
change and produce sequence of timing signals
T0,T1,T2 and so on.

28. Hardwired Control Unit
 The output of counter decoder and decoded opcode
of the instruction causes the control logic to generate
a particular control word for the operation.
 At the end of each instruction, counter is cleared.
 For the next instruction, the opcode produces
different output on the opcode decoder and the
control will be different and the control unit will
perform the different tasks

29. Instruction Cycle
 The program executed in the computer by going
through a cycle for each instruction.
 The process of fetching, decoding and executing the
instruction is called instruction cycle.
 In basic computer each instruction cycle consists of
the following phases:
 Fetch an instruction from memory.
 Decode instruction
 Read effective address if the instruction has indirect address.
 Execute the instruction

30. Instruction Cycle

31. Instruction Cycle
 Fetch and Decode
 SC is cleared to 0. It is incremented by one so that timing
signal goes through T0,T1 and so on.
 PC is loaded with the address of the first instruction.
 Micro operation are listed below:

32. Instruction Cycle
 Determine the type of instruction
 Decoder output D7 equals to 1 if instruction is register
reference or input/output reference.(opcode 111)
 Decoder output D7 equals to o if the instruction is memory
reference.(opcode 000-110)
 Control then inspects the first bit. If D7=0 & I=1 it is memory
reference with indirect address. If D7=0 and I=0 it is memory
reference with direct address.
 If D7=1 and I=0 it is register reference instruction.
 If D7=1 and I=1 it is input/output reference instruction.

33. Instruction Cycle
 Execute the Instruction
 Three instruction types are divided into four paths.
 The operation related to timing signal T3 are :

34. Input Output Configuration
 A computer serves no useful purpose unless it
communicates with the external environment.
 Instruction and data stored in memory must come
from some input device.
 Computational results must be transmitted to the
user through some output device

35. Input Output Configuration

36. Input Output Configuration
 Input Register(INPR) consist of eight bits and hold
alphanumeric input information.
 The one bit input flag(FGI) is control flip flop. It is 1
when information is available in INPR and cleared to
0 when information is accepted by computer.
 The output register(OUTR) works in similar manner.
 When computer found FGO is 1, the information
from AC is transferred to OUTR and FGO is cleared
to 0.
 The output device receives the information and set
FGO to 1.

37. Program Interrupt
 The speed of the peripheral devices are very slow in
comparison to that of the computer.
 So during i/o operation computer will waste time
while checking the flag instead of doing some useful
tasks.
 One solution for this problem is that computer won’t
check the flag continuously but get interrupted
whenever the flag is set.
 Computer than deviates from what it was doing and
take care of the i/o operation.

38. Interrupt Cycle
 The interrupt handled by the program can be
explained with the help of flow chart.
 When R=0, computer goes through an instruction
cycle.
 During execute phase IEN is checked if it is 1, control
checks for flags if both are zero next instruction is
executed. If either flag is 1 when IEN is 1, R is set to 1
and it goes through the interrupt cycle.

39. Interrupt Cycle
 In interrupt cycle address in PC is stored in some
location so that it can be found later.
 Here we choose memory location at address 0 to
store the return address.

40. Interrupt Cycle

41. Interrupt Cycle