The Ottoman Empire expanded greatly between 1453 and 1757 CE, conquering large areas of Western Asia, North Africa, and parts of Europe under sultans like Mehmet II and Suleiman I. The Safavid dynasty ruled Persia starting in the 16th century as strict Shiite Muslims, reaching their height under Shah Abbas, while the Mughal Empire was established in Northern India by Babur and expanded all of India by Akbar's rule, creating a period of cultural and economic flourishing, though all three empires began experiencing decline by the 1700s.

1. Muslim Empires
1453 CE – 1757 CE

2. Rise of the Ottoman Turks
• In the 13th century, the Ottoman Turks began to build
power on the Anatolian Peninsula
– As the Seljuk Empire began to decline in the 14th century, the
Ottoman Turks began to expand
– The Ottomans expanded westward and eventually controlled
the Bosporus and the Dardanelles
• In the 14th century, the Ottoman Turks expanded into
the Balkans
– Ottoman rulers claimed the title of Sultan and began to build a
strong military
– They recruited from an elite guard called janissaries; the
Janissaries were converted to Islam and trained as foot soldiers
to serve the sultan

3. Ottoman Turk Empire Expansion
• Over the next 300 years, Ottoman rule expanded to
include large areas of Western Asia, North Africa,
and parts of Europe
• Under the leadership of Mehmet II, the Ottomans
moved to end the Byzantine Empire
– Mehmet laid siege to Constantinople; the battle began
April 6, 1453 and lasted two month
– The Ottomans were able to breach the walls and take over
the city; it was sacked for over three days
– Mehmet regretted the damage caused to Constantinople
• Constantinople was renamed Istanbul

4. Ottoman Turk Empire Expansion
• With their new capital at Istanbul, the Ottoman Turks
dominated the Balkans and Anatolian Peninsula
• From 1514 to 1517, Sultan Selim I took control of
Mesopotamia, Egypt and Arabia
– The Sultan controlled several of the holy cities, including
Jerusalem, Makkah, and Madinah
• Ottoman Turks expanded westward along the African
coast, eventually almost reaching the Strait of Gibraltar
– They preferred to administer their rule through local rulers; the
central government appointed officials, called pashas to collect
taxes, maintain law and order, and report to the sultan

5. Ottoman Expansion into Europe
• After capturing Constantinople, the Turks tried to complete
their conquest of the Balkans
– They took the Romanian territory of Walachia, but were unable to
advance up the Danube Valley; they were stopped by the Hungarians
• In 1520, Suleyman I began his rule and moved against
Europe
– He seized Belgrade in the Danube Valley; in 1526 at the Battle of
Mohacs, the Turks won a major victory against the Hungarians
– The Ottomans were then able to conquer most of Hungary
– They moved into Austria, where they were finally defeated in 1529
(near Vienna)
• By mid-1683, the Ottomans laid siege to Vienna, but were
repulsed by an army of Europeans; they were pushed out of
Hungary, and were no longer a threat to central Europe

6. Ottoman Empire, 1300-1699

7. Ottoman Rule
The Ottomans were
labeled a gunpowder
empire – an empire that
was formed by outside
conquerors who unified
the regions they
conquered. Their success
was based on their
mastery of the technology
of firearms.

8. Sultans
• At the head of the Ottoman system
was the Sultan, who was the
supreme authority in political and
military endeavors
• The Sultan was a hereditary position,
passed on through sons; often sons
fought over succession
• As the empire expanded, the Sultan
became more important and the
position became an imperial ruler
(emperor)
• The private domain of the Sultan
was called the harem (sacred place);
here the sultan and his wives resided
• The Sultan controlled his
bureaucracy through a council led by
the Grand Vizier
• The Empire was divided into
provinces and districts, each
governed by local officials

9. Religion in the Ottoman World
• The Ottoman Turks were Sunni Muslims
– The Sultan also claimed the title of caliph
• The Sultan used religious advisors called ulema, who
administered the legal systems and schools for
educating Muslims
– Islamic law and customs were applied to all Muslims in the
empire
• The Ottomans were tolerant of non-Muslims
– Non-Muslims paid a tax, but were allowed to practice
their religion or convert to Islam

10. Ottoman Society
• People were divided into social classes based on
occupation; there were four main occupational groups:
– Peasants – farmers, leased land from the state
– Artisans – organized according to craft guilds, which provided
financial services, social security, and training to its members
– Merchants – the most privileged class outside of the ruling
class, they were exempt from taxes and regulation and could
amass large fortunes
– Pastoral Peoples – nomadic herders who had their own
regulations and laws
• Women were allowed to own and inherit property, they
could not be forced into marriage and in some cases
were permitted to divorce; women occasionally served
in government offices

11. Problems in the Ottoman Empire
• The Ottoman Empire reached its highest point under
Suleyman the Magnificent, who ruled from 1520 to 1566
– He was succeeded by his only surviving son (he had the other
two killed)
• In the late 1600s, the empire began to lose territory
• After the death of Suleyman, the sultans allowed the
ministers to exercise too much power; only elites were
given government positions; the bureaucracy lost
control of rural areas
• There was corruption throughout the empire and the
treasury was depleted
• Western ideas began to invade the empire, including
fashion, art, furniture, and more

12. Ottoman Art
• Ottoman Sultans were
enthusiastic patrons of
the arts
• Ottomans flourished in
the production of
pottery, rugs, silk,
jewelry, arms, and
armor

13. Ottoman Architecture
• Ottoman architecture
was probably the
greatest contribution of
the empire. Elaborate
and magnificent
mosques were built
throughout the empire
• Sinan, one of the
greatest Ottoman
architects, built 81
mosques

14. Rule of the Safavids
• After the collapse of
Tamerlane’s empire
in Asia, the area
from Persia to
central Asia fell into
anarchy
• In the 16th century,
a new dynasty
known as the
Safavids took
control
• The Safavids were
strict Shiite
Muslims

15. Shah Ismail
• The Safavid dynasty was established by Shah Ismail, the
descendent of Safi al-Din
• In 1501, Ismail used his forces to seize most of Iraq and
Iran; he appointed himself shah (king) of the new
Persian state
• Ismail sent Shiite preachers to Anatolia to convert
members of the Ottoman empire
• He conquered Baghdad in 1508 and ordered the
massacre of Sunni Muslims
• The Ottoman Sultan Selim I attacked the Safavids in
Persia and won a major battle near Tabriz
– They could not maintain control of the region and it went back
to the Safavid Empire
• The Safavids spend years consolidating their rule
throughout Persia

16. Glory of the Safavid Empire
• Shah Abbas took control of the empire in 1588 and
ruled to 1629
– Under his rule, they reached their highest point
• Shah Abbas strengthened his army and armed them
with the latest technology
• Shah Abbas moved against the Ottomans to regain
lost territories; he was helped by the European
states who wanted the removal of the Ottoman
Turks
• After his death, the empire began to decline

17. Decline of the Safavid Empire
• After Shah Abbas’ death, the empire dealt with
internal pressures
– Religious orthodoxy, or strict conformity to religious
beliefs and practices
– Women were forced into seclusion and had to wear veils
• In the 18th century, Afghan peoples invaded and
seized the capital of Isfahan and took over the
empire
– The Ottoman Turks took advantage of the chaos to retake
territories along the western border
• Persia sank into a long period of political and social
anarchy

18. Political & Social Structures
• Persia under the Safavids was a mixed society; the
Safavids came to power with the support of some
Nomadic Turkish groups, but the majority of people
were Persian; all aspects of the empire were affected
by having two distinct groups of people
• The Safavid political system was organized like a
pyramid, with the Shah at the top, with the
bureaucracy and landed classes in the middle and
the common people at the bottom

19. Role of the Shah
• The Shah was considered a direct successor of
Muhammad
• The Shah’s declared Shia Islam to be the state
religion
• Shah’s controlled the landed aristocracy by seizing
estates and bringing them under state control
• Shah’s appointed people to the bureaucracy based
on merit, not birth

20. Economy & Trade
• The Safavid empire had a large and affluent middle
class involved in trade
• Most goods traveled by camel caravan; the
government provided resting places for weary
travelers but did not maintain the roads
• The Safavid empire was not as prosperous as the
Moguls or Ottomans, because they were hemmed in
on all sides by other empires

21. Safavid Culture
• The capital city of Isfahan was built by Shah Abbas
– It was well-planned, with wide spaces and a sense of order
– Palaces, mosques, and bazaars were arranged around a
massive polo ground
– Buildings were richly decorated with metalwork, tiles, and
glass
• Much of Isfahan still stands in modern-day Iran
• Safavids were known for silk weaving, carpet
weaving, and painting

22. The Mogul Dynasty
• In 1500 the Indian
subcontinent was
divided into a number
of Hindu and Muslim
kingdoms
• The Moguls established
a new dynasty and
brought a new era of
unity to the region

23. Mogul Dynasty
• The founder of the Mogul Dynasty was Babur; he was
descended from Timur Lenk and Genghis Khan
– He inherited part of Timur Lenk’s empire
– He seized Kabul as a youth in 1504
– In 1517, he crossed the Khyber Pass to India
• Babur captured Delhi and established his power in
Northern India
• Babur’s grandson Akbar was only 14 when he inherited
the throne; by 1605 he had brought Mogul rule to most
of India
– He used heavy artillery in battle and was able to overcome his
opponents

24. Akbar
• His conquests created the
greatest Indian empire
since the Mauryan dynasty
2,000 years earlier
• He was known for the
humane nature of his rule
– He adopted policies of
religious tolerance
– He welcomed views of
Christian and Jesuit advisers
at court
– He allowed non-Muslims to
serve in government offices

25. Akbar
• The upper ranks of government were filled with non-
native Muslims
• The lower ranks were often Hindus (demonstrating
his religious tolerance)
• The lower ranking and local officials were given plots
of farmland known as zamindars for their own use
– They kept a portion of the taxes paid by the peasants
instead of a salary
– They had to forward the rest of the taxes to the central
government
• Akbar’s reign was a time of progress, with
flourishing trade and manufacturing

26. Decline of the Moguls
• Akbar died in 1605 and was succeeded by his son Jahangir
– He lost power when he allowed one of his wives to influence him into
giving her family members power and wealth
• He was succeeded by Shah Jahan, who ruled from 1628 to
1658
– Jahan expanded the boundaries of the empire, taking control of the
Deccan Plateau
– Jahan failed to deal with internal domestic issues and his empty
treasury
– There was a power struggle among his sons that ended in the death
of a brother and the death of their father
• Aurangzeb became emperor in 1658; he was one of the most
controversial rulers of India, ever
– He forbade Hindu customs (like suttee, the cremation of a widow on
her husband’s pyre)
– He tried to get rid of vices like drinking and gambling
– He discriminated against Hindus

27. The British in India
• The arrival of the British hastened the decline of the Mogul Empire
• By 1650, British trading forts were established in Calcutta and
Madra
– British ships carried Indian made goods to the East Indies, where they
were traded for spices
• The French also came to India, mostly in response to British trade
• The French & British fought over trade routes and territory; the
British eventually won control because of Sir Robert Clive, who
became the chief representative of the British in India
• In 1757, Clive led British forces against a Mogul army and soundly
defeated them; the Mogul court gave the British power to collect
taxes, which increased Britain’s power
• The British eventually expanded throughout India, taking control
of local governments and taxing the locals to pay their expenses
• The British remained the dominant force in India until the 20th
century

28. Society & Daily Life Mogul India
• The Moguls were foreign Muslims ruling over a local
Hindu population
– Women were allowed to hold office, but still had to live
under the strict guidelines of Islamic Law; many of the
rules for women were adopted by Hindus
• Under the Moguls, a wealthy landed nobility and
prosperous merchant class developed in India
• The Indians were able to establish strong trade ties
with foreign nations

29. Mogul Culture
• The Moguls brought
together Persian and
Indian influences that
were seen especially in
the architecture of India
• The Taj Mahal was built
by Shah Jahan in the 17th
century; considered the
most beautiful building in
India, it’s decorated with
cut-stone patterns, inlays,
and mosaics