The document provides a preface and list of plates and maps for "The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature" which was compiled and edited by S.P. Harvey. It was published in 1937 by the Clarendon Press in Oxford and aimed to provide convenient information for readers interested in the literatures of Greece and Rome as well as modern European literature containing classical allusions. The preface acknowledges the many sources consulted in preparing the book and thanks those who provided suggestions to improve the work.

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5. THE OXFORD
COMPANION TO
CLASSICAL
LITERATURE

7. THE OXFORD
COMPANION
TO CLASSICAL
LITERATURE
Compiled and edited
by
SIB PAUL HARVEY
OXFORD
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
1937

8. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
AMEN HOUSE, E.G. 4
London Edinburgh Glasgow New York
Toronto Melbourne Capetown Bombay
Calcutta Madras
HUMPHREY MILFORD
PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, OXFORB
BY JOHN JOHNSON. PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY

9. PEEFACE
aim of this book, as designed by the publishers, is to
THE present, in convenient form, information which the ordinary
reader, not only of the literatures of Greece and Rome, but also
of that large proportion of modern European literature which
teems with classical allusions, may find useful. It endeavours to
do two things in the first place to bring together what he may
:
wish to know about the evolution of classical literature, the
principal authors, and their chief works in the second place,
;
to depict so much of the historical, political, social, and religious
background as may help to make the classics understood.
Accordingly, for the first of the above purposes, articles in
alphabetical arrangement (1) explain the various elements of
classical literature epic, tragedy, comedy, metre, &c (2) give;
an account of the principal authors; and (3) describe the
subjects or contents of their works, either under the name of
the author, where more convenient, under the title of the
or,
work itself. Interesting points of connexion between the classics
and medieval and modern English literature are noticed. In
general the book confines itself to the classical period, but some
authors of the decline, such as Plutarch and Lucian, Jerome and
Ausonius, are included, because of their exceptional interest or
importance.
In addition, to effect the second of the above purposes,
articles are added:
(1) on the principal phases of the history of Greece (more
particularly Athens) and Rome, down to the end of the
period of their classical literatures, and on their political
institutions and economic conditions outstanding histori-
;
cal characters, inseparable from literature, such as Pericles
and Pompey, are separately mentioned ;
(2) on Greek and Roman religion and religious institutions,
and the principal schools of philosophy ;
(3) on various aspects of the social conditions, under such

10. vi PREFACE
headings as Houses, Women (Position of), Slavery, Educa-
tion, Food, Clothing, and Games ; the art, industry, com-
merce, and agriculture of the Greek and Roman periods
are also noticed ;
(4) on the more important myths and mythological charac-
ters, as an essential element in Greek and Roman litera-
ture;
(5) on geographical names of importance in a literary
connexion, as the birthplaces of authors, or as the scene of
events frequently alluded to something is said of the
;
topography of Athens and Rome, and further geographical
information is furnished by maps and plans ;
(6) on the manner in which ancient books were written, and
the texts transmitted and studied through the ages ;
(7) on such things as Roman camps, roads, and aqueducts,
ancient ships and chariot-races, horses and elephants in
antiquity, and domestic pets.
It should be remembered, nevertheless, that this work does
not list antiquities as such, but only those antiquities which
concern the study of classical literature.
The compiler of a book such as this is necessarily under a
heavy debt to previous writers. It would be impossible, within
the limits of a preface, to enumerate the works, whether editions
of and commentaries on ancient authors, or treatises on various
aspects of antiquity, which have been consulted in the course
of its preparation. Of such works I may specially mention,
rather as an illustrative sample than as giving any indication of
the extent of my obligations, the works of Werner on Jaeger
Aristotle, of Prof. 'Gilbert
Murray on Aristophanes, of C. M.
Bowra on Homer, of Sir J. C. Sandys on Epigraphy and on the
History of Scholarship, of A. W. Pickard-Cambridge on the
evolution of the Greek drama, of F. G. Kenyon and F. W. Hall
on ancient books, of W. W. Tarn on Hellenistic Civilization, of
R. C. Jebb on the Attic Orators, and of R. G. Collingwood
on Roman Britain. Apart from this general acknowledgement
of my indebtedness, I must confine myself to naming a few

11. PREFACE vii
works from which I have more especially and more frequently
sought; ^guidance, viz,: in the matter of Greek Literature, the
histo^es of the subject by A. and M. Croiset, Prof. Gilbert
Murray, and Prof. Rose Latin Literature, the works of J. W.
;
Mackail, R. Pichon, J. Wight Duff, and Prof. Rose; Greek
mythology and religion, Prof. Rose's 'Handbook of Greek
Mythology' and M. P. Nilsson's 'History of Greek Religion';
Roman religion, the works of W. Warde Fowler and Cyril Bailey
*
and Sir J. G. Frazer's commentary on Ovid's Fasti'; Greek
and Roman History, the works of G. Glotz, M. Gary, J. B. Bury,
M. Rostovtzeff G. Ferrero, and the Cambridge Ancient History.
,
On antiquities in general I have obtained much assistance from
the Cambridge Companions to Greek and Latin Studies, from
the dictionaries of Darexnberg and Saglio and of Seyffert
(Sandys and Nettleship), and from Stuart Jones's 'Companion
to Roman History'; on points of biography from Liibker's
'Reallexikon' and on certain matters from the 'Real-Encyclo-
;
'
padie of Pauly-Wissowa.
I must also acknowledge the helpful suggestions which I have
received from several people who were concerned with this book
in its various stages: from Dr. Cyril Bailey; Mr. J. B. Poynton
of Winchester College Mr. W. H. Walsh of Merton College,
;
Oxford; Mr. A. H. M. Jones of All Souls College, Oxford; Mr.
H. A. Murray of King's College, Aberdeen; Mr. J. M. Wyllie;
Mr. S. W. Steadman; and Miss C. M. M. Leask of Aberdeen;
alsofrom the staff of the Clarendon Press. Such value as the
book may have is largely due to them. H.P.H.
September, 1937.

12. LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS
PAGES
Detailed description . . . 465-8
PLATES
1. Greek and Roman Houses.
2. Roman and Roman Camp.
Villas
3. Greek Armour.
4. Roman Armour.
6. Greek and Roman Theatres.
6. Greek and Roman Temples.
MAPS
7. Asia Minor and the East: Routes of Xerxes, Cyrus,
Alexander, and the March of the Ten Thousand.
8. Greece and Asia Minor.
9. Roman Empire.
10. Italy.
11. Gaul.
12. Roman Britain.
13 (a). Athens. (6). Piraeus.
14 (a). Rome under the Republic.
(6). Centre of Rome under the Early Empire.

13. GUJNJKKAL. AKTIULES
THE following selected list indicates the headings under which
information on general subjects can be found.
Administration,Public (Athens, 9 ; Rome, Horses.
12). Houses and Furniture.
Agriculture. Hunting.
'Alphabet. Judicial Procedure.
Aqueducts. Law, Roman.
Architecture, Greek (for Koman Archi- Libraries.
tecture, see Art). Ludi.
Army. Lyric Poetry.
Art, Roman (for Greek Art Bee Architec- Magic,
ture, Painting, Sculpture, Toreutic Art). Maps.
Augury and Auspices. Metre.
Augustan Age. Migrations and Dialects, Greek.
Baths. Mines.
Birthplaces of Greek and Roman Money and Coins.
authors. Monsters.
Books, Ancient. Museums.
Burial and Cremation. Music.
Byzantine Age of Greek Literature. Mysteries.
Calendar. Mythology.
Castra. Names.
Chariot races. Novel.
Ciceronian Age. Omens.
Classic. Oracles.
Clothing and Toilet. Oratory.
Colonization. Ostraca.
Comedy. Painting, Greek (for Roman Painting see
Corn Supply. Art).
Dancing. Papyri, Discoveries of.
Dictionaries. Pets.
Didactic poetry. Philosophy.
Divination. Pottery.
Dogs. Priests.
Economic Conditions (Athens, 10 J Prose.
Rome, 13). Provinces, Roman.
Editions of Collections of the Classics. Religion.
Education. Roads.
Elegy. Roman Age of Greek Literature.
Elephants. Sacrifice.
Epio. Satire.
Epigraphy. Satyric Drama.
Epitaphs. Sculpture, Greek (for Roman Sculpture
Festivals. see Art).
Finances (Athens, II; Rome, 14). Ships.
Food and Wine. Slavery.
Games. Temples.
Gladiators. Texts and Studies.
Glass. Theatre.
Guilds. Tragedy.
Hellenistic Age. Vase-painting.
Historians, Ancient, and Modern. Weights and Measures.
Homeric Age. Women, Position of.
A date chart of Greek and Latin authors and of events contemporary with
them is given on pages 455-62.

14. PKELIMINAEY NOTE
HEAD-WORDS
PROPER names are entered as head -words in the form in which they
are most familiar to ordinary readers, e.g. A'jax, A'ristotle,
Menela'us, Phi'dias, Te'rence. The Greek v appears as y, K as c,.
and final -os as -us where these are the more familiar forms. The
correct transliteration of Greek names and the full Latin names are
added in brackets where required: e.g. A'jax (Aids), A'ristotle
(Aristoteles), Menela'us (Meneldos), Phi'dias (Pheidids), Te'rence
(Publius Terentius Afer) (Less familiar names, not head- words, such
.
as Asopichos, Pherenikos, are given in transliterated form.)
Latin proper names appear under the person's nomen unless he is
generallyknown by his cognomen e.g. Cicero appears under that
;
name, not under 'Tullius '. In a few cases the names are given under
the praenomen, e.g. Appius Claudius, where this is the customary
designation.
QUANTITIES AND PRONUNCIATION
The ordinary English pronunciation of names is shown, by stress
and quantity marks, in head- words only (i.e. in the words printed in
heavy black type at the beginning of each article). Where the
quantities in the English pronunciation differ from those in Greek or
Latin, the name is repeated in brackets with the Greek or Latin
quantities. The quantities shown in all names and common nouns
other than head-words are their quantities as Greek or Latin words,
and are not necessarily an indication of their accepted pronunciation
in English. For instance
(1) Catullus, GAIUS VALERIUS,
(2) Clau'dius (Tib&rius Claudius N&ro Qermanicua),
(3) a river in Pamphylia,
where Catullus and Clau'dius represent the ordinary English
pronunciation, while Glfus, VALERIUS, Tiblriua, Nlro, Qermanicus,
Pamphylia, show the quantities of the Latin or Greek names.
In general only the long vowels are marked, and vowels are to be
taken as short unless marked as long but ;
(1) a syllable in which the vowel is long (or common) by position,

15. PEELIMINARY NOTE
under the ordinary rules of Greek and Latin prosody, as being
followed^by two consonants, is usually not marked; e.g. the first
syllables in Thersites, Petronius ;
<
(2) the vowels of Latin case-endings which are long by the ordi-
nary rules of Latin prosody, for instance -o, -a, -is of the ablative,
-i, -orum, -arum of the genitive, are not marked; e.g. De Amlcitia.
(3) short vowels are occasionally marked with the short sign,
e.g. for emphasis, as where a vowel which is short in Greek or Latin
is usually pronounced long in English ; e.g. So'lon (Solon), Ti'tus
(Titus).
Where a vowel is common (sometimes short, sometimes long) other-
wise than under above, this is indicated by the sign -; e.g.
(1)
Diana. Where, in a name
of some importance, a quantity is un-
known or uncertain, the fact is stated.
The groups of letters AE, AI, Atr, EI, EU, otr, are to be taken
as diphthongs unless indicated that the letters are to be pro-
it is
nounced separately, e.g. Alphe'us, Anti'nous.
Where a name which appears as a head-word occurs also elsewhere
in the course of an article, the quantities are not always again in-
*
dicated there. For instance, where Socrates' occurs in the article
on Plato, it is printed without indication of the quantities. The great
majority of the names of persons and places mentioned in the course
of articles are given also as head- words, if only for purpose of cross-
reference ;
and this applies also to Greek and Latin common nouns
such as ecdesia, venationes. Accordingly a reader who desires to know
the quantities of the syllables of such a name or noun should first
look for it among the head- words. If it does not appear there and
no quantities are marked where it is found in an article, it may be
inferred that its syllables are short.

16. ABBREVIATIONS
ad fin.: adfinem, at or near the end. gen. :
genitive.
b. : born. Gk.: Greek.
c. :
century. L. or Lat. Latin. :
cc.: centuries. m. married.
:
c.: circa, about. O.T.: Old Testament.
cf.: confer, compare. q.v. :
quod vide, which see.
d. : died. qq.v,: quae vide, both which, or all
dr.: daughter. which, see.
et seq. : et sequentes, and following. understand or supply.
sc.: scilicet,
fl.i floruit, flourished.
The abbreviated names of authors and works, such as 'Horn. Il/,
'
Virg. Aen.', appearing in this book are for the most part sufficiently
familiar to need no explanation but the following may be noted:
;
Apoph. Keg.: Apophthegmata Re- Phaedr.: Phaednis.
gum. Ran. : Ranae (Frogs).
Ep.: Epistulae (Epistles). Sep. c. Th. Septem contra Thebas
:
Epod.: Epodes. (Seven against Thebes).
Nub. :Nubes (Clouds). Vesp. : Vespae (Wasps).
Phaed.:Phaedo.

17. G0M1PANION TO
CLASSICAL LITERATURE
Abbreviations denoting certain editions interlocutors were L. Licinius Lucullus
of the Classics, etc. (q.v.), Q. Lutatius Catulus, an aristocratic
ALG. leader (consul in 78 B.C.), Q. Hortensius
Anthotogia Lyrica Graeca.
Bude. Collection des University de France, (q.v.), and Cicero. The two books of this
first edition were called
*
Catulus' and
publiee SOILS le patronage de I'Assoc.
Guillaume Bude. 'Lucullus' after the chief interlocutors.
CAF. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Cicero then camo to the conclusion that
CAH. Cambridge Ancient History. these interlocutors could not agree, and
CGF. Comicorum Oraecorum Fragmenta. as Varro had asked that a work should be
CIE. Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum. dedicated to him, Cicero altered his plan
GIG. Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum. and dedicated a new edition to him.
CIL. Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. He rearranged the work in four books,
CLA. Codices Latini Antiquiores. and made the interlocutors Varro, Atticus,
Cl.Qu. Classical Quarterly. and Cicero. We
have the first book (i.e.
Cl.Rev. Classical Review. the first quarter) of the second edition
GPL. Corpus Poetarum Latinorum. (sometimes known as 'Academica Pos-
CRP, Comicorum Romanorum Fragmenta. toriora'), and the second book (i.e. the
FdV. Fragmente der Vorsokratiker. second half, ' Lucullus') of the first edition
(sometimes known as Academica Priora').
*
FHG. Fragmenta Historicorum Oraecorum.
HRR. Historicorum Romanorum Reli- The scene of the conversations is laid at
various villas on the shores of the Gulf of
quiae.
IG. Inscriptiones Graecae (Berlin, 1873- Naples. The date of the conversations, in
the first edition, was supposed to be before
).
IGA. Inscriptiones Graecae Antiquissimae 60 B.C. in the second, near the time of
;
(Berlin, 1882). composition.
JHS. Journal of Hellenic Studies. In Book I of the second edition Varro
OCT. Oxford Classical Texts. expounds the evolution of the doctrines
of the Academy (q.v.), from the dog-
PLG. Poetae Lyrici Graeci.
RE. Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopddie. matism of the old school to the scepticism
Rev. Arc. Revue Archeologique. of Arcesilas and Carneades. In Book II
SEG. Supplementum Epigraphicum Grae- of the first edition Lucullus attacks the
cum. position of the sceptics. Cicero defends
SVF. Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta. the sceptic view and Carneades' doctrine
Teubner or BT. Dibliotheca scriptorum of probability.
Graec. et Lot. Teubneriana.
Thes. L.L. Thesaurus Linguae Latinae.
Acptie'mus, see Academy.
Academy (Akademeia), a grove of olive-
Abde'ra a Greek city on the trees near Athens, adjoining the Cephlsus,
(ra "Afloypa),
coast of Thrace, founded in the 7th c. and sacred to the hero Academus (see Dios-
refounded in the 6th by lonians (of TeQs in curi), and containing a gymnasium (q.v.).
Asia Minor), the birthplace of Protagoras It was in this grove that Plato and his
and Democritus (qq.v.); nevertheless pro- successors taught, and his school of philo-
verbial for the stupidity of its inhabitants. sophy was in consequence known as the
Academy,
Absy'rtus (Apsurtos), brother of Medea the olive grove of Academe,
;
see Argonauts. Plato's retirement, where the Attic bird
Trills her thick -warbl'd notes the summer
Aby'dos (Abudos), see Colonization, 2,
and Leander. long. (Milton, P.R. iv. 244 et seq.).
Sulla cut down the trees during his siege
Acad&'mica* a dialogue by Cicero on the of Athens, but they must have grown
philosophical theories of knowledge, com- again, for Horace, who studied at Athens,
*
posed in 45 B.C. In its first form the refers to the woods of Academus' (Ep. n.
treatise consisted of two books, and the ii. 45). Plato was buried near the grove.
4339

18. Acastus Achaean League
His immediate successors as leaders of praetextae (q.v.) (on Decius Mus and
the school were Spousippus, Xenocrates, Brutus the liberator) and works on
Polemo, and Crates, and the Academy literature Didascalica', a short history
('
under these leaders was known as the of Greek and Latin poetry, perhaps in
Old Academy. A brief account of the verse and prose, thus anticipating tho
'
general character of the Platonic teaching Menippean Satires' of Varro), agriculture
will be found under Plato, 3. Arcesilas of (in verse), and history (annals, of rather a
Pitane (c. 315-240 B.C.), who introduced mythological and theological character,
the doctrines of Pyrrhonian scepticism in verse). He was the first great Latin
(see Sceptics) into the teaching of the grammarian of whom tradition tolls. His
school and engaged in controversy with tragedies were marked by dignity of style
the Stoics on the question of the certitude and by the faculty of depicting terror,
of knowledge, was the founder of what is pathos, and fortitude. He is perhaps the
known as the Second or Middle Academy. first Latin poet to show some appreciation
This sceptical attitude was further de- of the beauty of nature. His 'Atreus'
veloped by Carneades (q.v.) in the 2nd contained the tyrant's phrase 'Oderint
c. B.C. Antiochus of Ascalon in the 1st dum metuant', said by Suetonius to have
c. B.C. effected a reconciliation with tho been frequently in Caligula's mouth.
Stoic school and claimed to restore the
Ace'stes, in the 'Aeneid', son of the
Old Academy. See also Neoplatonism. Sicilian river-god Crimisus and a Trojan
Aca'stus (Akastos), son of Pelias (see
woman (Egesta or Segesta). He enter-
Argonauts) and father of Laodameia (sec tains Aeneas and his comrades in Sicily.
Protesilaus). See also Peleus. Achae'a, Achae'ans (Achaia, Achaioi).
Acca Lare'ntia or LAURE'NTIA, probably 'Aohaeans', according to a view widely
held by modern students, was the name
originally an Italian goddess of the earth
to whom the seed was entrusted. She was by which the first Hellenic invaders of
Greece were called (see Migrations and
worshipped at the Ldrentdlia on Dec. 23.
In legend she was the wife of the herdsman Dialects), and Achaea was the name of
Faustulus and the nurse of Romulus and two territories in Greece, the region where
Remus. For a discussion of her possible con- they first settled in tho north (the name was
nexion with tho Lares (q.v.) see Frazer on subsequently restricted to the mountains
Ov. Fast. iii. 55. of Phthiii), and a strip along the southern
shore of the Corinthian Gulf, which they
Accents, GREEK, were invented by Ari- occupied later. But it is pointed out that
stophanes of Byzantium (q.v.), about tho there is no evidence of
any tradition
beginning of the 2nd c. B.C., with a view that tho Achaeans were Invaders, and that
to preserving the correct pronunciation, Herodotus and Pausanias speak of them
which in the Hellenistic Age was being as autochthonous. Homer xiscs the term
corrupted by the extension of tho Greek in two senses: in a narrower sense of a
language to many new countries. The people inhabiting the kingdom of Achilles
accents indicated not stress but varia- near the Spercheus in Thessaly, and in a
tions in the pitch of the voice. The grave wider sense of the Greek army besieging
accent signified the ordinary tone, the Troy and of the Greeks generally, no
acute a rise in tho voice, the circumflex doubt because the Achaeans were a
a rise followed by a fall. In tho period of
prominent tribe among them.
papyrus rolls (see Books) accents are as The Achaeans of the Peloponnese were
a rule only occasionally indicated. The tho founders, probably in the 8th c. B.C.,
use of them became generalized about of the important group of colonies at the
the 3rd c. A.D. The most important work southern extremity of Italy (including
on accentuation was that of Herodian Sybaris and Croton) which formed the
(q.v.). H. W. Chandler's Greek Accentua- greater part of what was known as Mag-
tion (2nd ed. 1881, Clarendon Press) is a na Graecia. Much later, Peloponnesian
standard treatise on this subject. Achaea became important in the history
A'ccius or A'rnus, Ltfcrus (170-C.86 of the 3rd c. B.C. as the centre of the
B.C.), a Latin poet, probably of Pisaumm
Achaean League (q.v.). In a later age
in Umbria, of a humble family. He was again Achaia was the name given by
a younger contemporary of Pacuvius the Romans to the province, comprising
the greater part of Greece, formed by
(q.v.), whom he rivalled as a great
Roman tragedian. Cicero records that he Augustus.
conversed with him. We have the titles Achaean League, a league of cities of
of some 45 of his tragedies, which dealt Achaea in the Peloponnese which had
with Greek themes such as Andromeda, detached themselves from the rule of
Medea, Philoctetes. He also wrote two Antigonus Gonatas (see Macedonia, 3)

19. Achaemenidae Achilleid
In 275 B.o. Its constitution is interesting Dikaiopolis, an Athenian farmer, sits
because the affairs of the League were awaiting the meeting of the Assembly,
administered by a Council composed of sighing for the good times of peace. A
delegations from the cities in proportion Demigod appears, sent by the gods to
to their population; each delegation was arrange peace with Sparta, but unfortun-
chosen by its city, but we do not know by ately lacking the necessary travelling-
what method. It was the nearest approach money. This Dikaiopolis provides, but
to representative government which we the treaty with Sparta is to be a private
find in Greece. The power and influence one for himself alone. The Demigod
of the League increased under the leader- presently brings the treaty, narrowly
ship of Aratus of Sicyon, who from 245 escaping from the chorus of infuriated
was for thirty years the director of the Acharnians. Dikaiopolis celebrates his
League's policy, and in alternate years peace with a procession consisting of his
its general (he wrote his 'Memoirs', now daughter and servants, and this leads
lost, and there is a life of him by Plutarch, to a dispute between Dikaiopolis and the
including a vivid description of his capture chorus on the question of peace or war,
of Corinth). He made the League the in which Lamachus (q.v.), the typical
leading power in the Peloponnese, with general, takes part. Dikaiopolis is allowed
Corinth as its chief stronghold. On the to make a speech before being executed as
military side the League subsequently a traitor ; and to render this more pathetic
derived great strength from the ability borrows from Euripides some of the stage
of Philopocmen (q.v.), and was finally (in properties that make his tragedies so mov-
188) able to overcome Sparta herself. But ing. As a result the chorus are won over
its high-handed policy brought it into to the view of Dikaiopolis. After the
conflict with Rome. After the defeat of parabasis, in which the poet defends his
the Macedonians at Pydna (168), Rome, position, there is a succession of amusing
as a measure of future security, deported scenes illustrative of the benefits of peace.
to Italy a thousand Achaeans suspected A Megarian (Athens had been trying to
of hostility to her cause among these was
; starve out Megara by a blockade) comes
Polybius (q.v.). In 148, when the surviving to Dikaiopolis to buy food, offering in
exiles (other than Polybius) had returned exchange his little daughters disguised as
to Greece, there was again trouble between pigs in sacks. A Boeotian brings eels and
the League and Sparta. Rome intervened other good things, and wants in return
and imposed harsh terms on the League. local produce of Attica; he is given an
The League rebelled and declared war, but Informer tied up in a sack. A yeoman
after a short struggle was completely de- wants peace -salve for his eyes, which he
feated by Mummius hi 146 and dissolved. has cried out for the loss of his oxen ; and
so forth. Finally Lamachus has to march
Achaeme'nidae, the first royal house off through the snow against the Boeo-
of Persia, so named from the hero
tians, and returns wounded by a vine-
Achaemenes (Pers. Hakhdmanis), founder stake on which he has impaled himself,
of the family. To this family belonged
while Dikaiopolis makes merry with the
Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius (see Persian
priest of Bacchus.
Wars).
Acha'tes, in the 'Aeneid', the faithful
Acha'rnfans (Acharnes), a comedy by friend and squire of Aeneas, frequently
Aristophanes, produced at the Lenaea in referred to as 'fldus Achates'.
425 B.C., his first
surviving play.
The Athenians had for six years been A'cheron (Acheron), in Greek mythology,
one of the rivers of the lower world (see
suffering the horrors of the Peloponnesian
War, the devastation of their territory* Hades). The name was that of a river
in southern Epirus, which, issuing from
plague in the overcrowded city, and shor-
tage of food, but their spirit was unbroken. a deep and gloomy gorge, traversed the
The Acharnians (inhabitants of an Attic Aoherusian swamps, and after recieving
deme lying NVV. of Athens near the foot the waters of the tributary Cdcytus fell
of Mt. Parnes), of whom the chorus of into the Thesprotian Gulf.
this play is composed, had been among AchillS'id (AchilUis), an epic poem in
the chief sufferers, for their territory had hexameters by Statius (q.v.) on the story
been repeatedly ravaged. The comedy, of Achilles (q.v.), of which only one book
which is a plea for peace as the only and part of a second were written. The
rational solution, was produced, not in poem describes how Thetis, anxious that
the name of Aristophanes, who was still a her son shall not take part in the Trojan
youth, but in that of Callistratus, probably War (from which she knows he will not
also a comic poet. It won the first prize, return), removes him from the care of the
in spite of the unpopularity of the theme. centaur Chiron (q.v.) to Scyros. It relates

20. Achilles Actlum
his adventures there in the disguise of a 480 B.C.; the walls were rebuilt by Themi-
girl, his discovery by Ulysses, and de- stoclcs and Cimon (qq.v.). In the centre
parture for Troy. The work was begun in stood a colossal statue of Athene Pro-
A,D. 95 and was probably cut short by the machos ('the Champion') whose golden
writer's death. spear-point could be seen by mariners
Achi'ltes (Achil(l)eus), son of Peleus and from the sea. On the N. side stood the
Thetis (qq.v.), the chief hero on the Greek Erectheum, the original temple of the
side in the Trojan War (q.v.). When an tutelary deities of Athens, Athene, Posei-
infant, he was plunged by his mother don, and Ercchtheus (qq.v.), burnt by
in the Styx, and rendered invulnerable the Persians and rebuilt in the latter
except hi the heel by which she held him. part of the 5th c. hi the Ionic style, with
She later hid him, disguised as a girl, at Caryatides (q.v.) supporting its southern
the court of Lycomodes, King of Scyros, porch. In the age of Pericles were added,
hi order that he should not take part in the Parthenon and Propylaea (qq.v.).
There also was erected after the peace
the Trojan War; but he was discovered
of 421 B.C. (see Peloponnesian War) the
by Odysseus (q.v.), who sot arms before
beautiful little temple of Athene Nike
him, for Achilles betrayed himself by the
(' Victory'), which survives reconstructed.
fondness with which he handled them.
It stood on a bastion adjoining the Pro-
(There is a play by Robert Bridges,
*
Achilles in Scyros'). By Deidamia, pylaea and was demolished by the Turks
about 1685 to make place for a battery.
daughter of Lycomedes, Achilles had a
At the siege of Other sanctuaries, such as that of Artemis
son, Neoptolemus (q.v.).
(q.v.) Brauronia, and many statues and
Troy, Achilles was leader of the Myr-
midons (see Aeucus). He is represented as altars, stood on various parts of the rock.
a man of fierce and implacable temper. There were also a large number of marble
When he sulked in his tent in conse- slabs and columns, with inscriptions of
decrees, memorials, casualty -lists, treaties
quence of his quarrel with Agamemnon, as
related hi the 'Iliad', the Greeks were
and alliances, public accounts, inventories,
etc. Many of these inscriptions, more or
driven back to their ships and almost
overwhelmed. Then followed the inter- less mutilated, have survived.
vention of his friend Patroclus (q.v.) in Actae'on (Actaiori), in Greek mythology,
the battle, the death of the latter, and son of Aristae us (q.v.) and Autonoe,
the terrible grief of Achilles. After ho had daughter of Cadmus (q.v.). For some
been reconciled with Agamemnon, he slew offence, either because ho boasted that
Hector, and later Penthesilea, queen of the he was a better hunter than Artemis or
Amazons, who was fighting on the Trojan because he came upon her bathing, the
side. Mourning her for her beauty, ho was goddess changed him into a stag, and he
mocked by and killed him
Thersitcn (q.v.) was torn to pieces by his own hounds.
in a rage. Soon afterwards he was shot
in the heel by Paris (q.v.), or by Apollo, A'ctium, a promontory in the south of
and killed. Odysseus saw him in Hades JLpirus, at the mouth of the Ambracian
off which Octavian defeated the fleets
(Od. xi), but it was said later that he Gulf,
lived immortal in an island in the Euxine of Antony
and Cleopatra in 31 B.C. (see
7). This battle marked the end of
(see under Colonization, 2, for his worship Rome,
there). After the fall of Troy his ghost
the Roman republic and introduced the
claimed Polyxena, daughter of Priam, as Roman empire. Early in 31 Octavian had
his prize, and she was slain on his tomb. landed an army in Epirus
hi the hope of
f
Landor has an 'Imaginary Conversation* surprising Antony s fleet in the Ambracian
between Achilles and Helen on Mt. Ida. Gulf. In this hope ho had been disap-
The 'heel of Achilles' is proverbial for a pointed, for Antony had succeeded in
vulnerable spot. bringing up his army for the defence of
the fleet and establishing it at Actium.
Achi'lles Ta'tius, see Novel. For several months the armies and fleets
A'cis (Akis), see Galatea. of the two generals confronted each other.
At last, late in August, Antony decided to
A'cragas (Akrag&s), see Agrigentum.
fight a battle at sea; but what precisely
Acri'sius (Akrisios), see Danae. were his plans is uncertain. The fight
Acre/polls ('Upper Town'), the citadel, began at dawn on 2 September. At first
standing on high ground, of a Greek town. the heavier ships of Antony appeared
The Acropolis of Athens is a rocky plateau, to be prevailing; but presently the sixty
about 200 ft. high and about 300 yds. long Egyptian ships forming the contingent
by 150 yds. wide. It was surrounded by of Cleopatra were seen to set sail and make
walls, which, with the buildings within off southwards. Antony himself followed
them, were destroyed by the Persians in her in a swift quinquereme. Antony's

21. Ad Herennium Adrastus
was destroyed, and
fleet his army shortly to die for him. Thefather and mother of
went over to Octavian. Admetus having refused, his wife Alcestis
consented, and accordingly died. Just
Ad Here'nnium, Rhetorica, see Rhetoriea. after this, Heracles, on his way to one of
Ade'lphoe (or Adelphi, 'The Brothers'), his labours, visited the castle of Admetus.
a comedy by Terence, adapted from Mcn- The latter, in obedience to the laws of
ander and Diphilus (see Comedy, 4), hospitality, concealed the death of his
produced in 160 B.C. wife, and welcomed the hero. Heracles
The two sons of Demea, Aeschinus and presently discovered the truth, went out
Ctcsipho, are brought up, the former by to intercept Thanatos, the messenger from
his uncle Micio in the town, the latter by Hades, set upon him and took from him
his father in the country, and the theme whom he restored to her husband.
Alcestis,
of the comedy is the contrast between For Euripides' treatment of the story
their methods of education. Dcmea makes see Alcestis.
himself hated and distrusted by his harsh- Administration, PUBLIC, see Athens,
ness and frugality; Micio makes himself 9, Rome, 12.
loved and trusted by his indulgence and
Ado'niazii'scic, see Theocritus.
open-handedncss. Aeschinus has seduced
an Athenian lady of small means, loves Adonic, see Metre, 3.
her dearly, and wishes to marry her. in Greek mythology, a beautiful
Ctesipho, whom his father a J^do'nia,
believes
"youth sprung from the unnatural love
model of virtue, has fallen hi love with a of Myrrha
(or Smyrna) for her father
music-girl. Aeschinus, to help his brother, Cinyras (q.v.), king of
Cyprus, with which
carries off the girl from the slave-dealer she had been smitten
by Aphrodite for re-
to whom she belongs and brings her to
fusing to honour the goddess. When Ciny-
Micio 's house. He thereby incurs the
ras, discovering the crime, sought to kill
suspicion of carrying on an intrigue with Myrrha, she was changed into a myrtle,
this girl at the very moment when the
from which Adonis was born. Aphrodite
lady whom he has seduced has most need (q.v.) fell in love with him and, when he
of his sympathy and support. The truth was killed
by a boar while hunting, caused
becomes known. Aeschinus is forgiven by the rose or tho anemone to
spring from
Micio and his marriage arranged. Demea his blood
(or the anemone sprang from
is confounded at discovering the pro-
the tears that Aphrodite shed for Adonis).
fligacy of Ctesipho. Finding that his Both Aphrodite and Persephone (q.v.)
boasted method of education has earned then claimed
him, and Zeus decided that
him only hatred, ho suddenly changes his he should spend part of the year with
attitude and makes an amusing display each. Tho name Adonis is
probably the
of geniality forcing his old bachelor Semitic word
Adon, lord, and the myth
brother into a reluctant marriage with is
symbolical of the course of vegetation*
the bride 's mother, endowing her relative His death and survival were
widely cele-
with a farm at, Micio 's expense, and brated
(in tho East under the name of his
obliging the latter to free his slave and Syrian equivalent, Thamuz', cf. Milton,
start him in life showing that even P.L. i. 446-52). As a feature of his wor-
geniality can bo overdone. ship, the image of Adonis was surrounded
The *Adelphoe' was played at the with beds of rapidly withering plants,
funeral games of Aemilius Paullus (q.v.). 'Gardens of Adonis'. These are referred
Adme'tus (Admatos), in Greek mytho- to, e.g., in Spenser's 'Faerie Queene', '
in. vi. 29, hi Shakespeare's 1 Henry VI',
logy, son of Pheres and king of Pherao
in Thessaly. When Zeus killed Asclepius i. vi, anjfljba Milton,
P.L. ix. 440. The
story of the Tore ot~Venus for Adonis is
(q.v.) for restoring Hippolytus to life, '
tho subject of Shakespeare 's poem Venus
Apollo, the father of Asclepius, furious at
this treatment of his son, took vengeance
and Adonis'.
on the Cyclopes (q.v.) who had forged Adra'stus (Adrastos), legendary king of
Zeus's thunderbolt, and slew them. To Argos at the time of the conflict of
expiate this crime he was made for a year Polynices and Eteocles for the kingdom
the serf of Admetus, who treated him of Thebes (see Oedipus). Polynices mar-
kindly. Apollo, having learnt from the ried his daughter Argeia, Tydeus married
Fates that Admetus was destined to an her sister Deipyle; and Adrastus col-
early death, from gratitude to him lected and led the army of the 'Seven
cajoled the Fatss (with the help of wine) against Thebes'. When tho expedition
into granting Admetus longer life, pro- was defeated, Adrastus escaped, thanks
vided that at the appointed hour of his to the swiftness of his horse Arion, the
death he could persuade some one else offspring of Poseidon and Demeter. In

22. Aea 6 Aemilius Paullus
his old age ho led the second expedition Ae'geus (Aigffus), see Theseus and Medea
against Thebes, that of the Epigoni (q.v.) (Euripides' tragedy).
and died on his way home, after its suc-
cessful conclusion, from grief for the loss
Aegi'na (Aigina), (1) a nymph, the
mother of Aeacus (q.v.). (2) An island in
of his son, who alone had fallen in the
the Saronio Gulf which was occupied by
attack. tho Dorians (see Migrations). In the
Ae'a (Aia), in the story of the Argonauts 6th c. it was a strong naval power and
(q.v.), the realm of Aeetes (q.v.), later at enmity with Athens. When Persia
identified with Colchis. threatened Greece early in the 5th c., it
Ae'acus (Aiakos), in Greek mythology, was feared that the Aegine'tans would
son of Zous and the nymph Aegina. He support tho invaders. By tho intervention
was the father Telamon (father of the of Sparta Aegina was forced to give
of
greater Ajax) and of Peleus (father of
Athens hostages for her good conduct,'
Achilles) (qq.v.). He was a man of great
and an indecisive war between Aegina
piety, and when the inhabitants of his
and Athens followed, beginning probably in
488. Aegina, as a matter of fact, fought
island, Aegina, were destroyed by a plague,
Zeus, to reward him, created human beings bravely on the Greek side at Salamis.
out of ants (murmekes) to repeople it, and After the Persian Wars she opposed the
these were called Myrmidons, the name imperial policy of Athens and was sub-
by which the subjects of Peleus and dued in 457-6. During the Peloponnesian
Achilles are known in Homer. See also War the inhabitants were expelled and the
island was colonized (c. 429) by Athenian
Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Aeacus.
*
cleruchs (q.v.). The island was an impor-
Aeae'a (Aiatt), in the Odyssey', tho tant centre of Greek sculpture and con-
island of Circe, situated in the stream tained a famous
temple of Aphaia (see
Oceanus (q.v.). Britomartis), of which the fine pediments
Ae'diles (Aedues) of the plebs, at Home, survive (at Munich). In mythology Aegina
originally two plebeian magistrates (named was the realm of Aeacus (q.v.)
'aediles* from the aedes or temple of Ceres,
Aegi'sthus (Aigisthos), see Pelops.
where they preserved the decrees of the
people), who bad the charge of temples, Aegospo'tami (Aigospotamoi, 'Goat's
buildings, markets, and games. To them Rivers'), a small river in the Thracian
were later added two Curule Aediles repre- Chersonese, off the mouth of which Athens
senting the whole people. The aediles suffered her final naval defeat in the
were charged with the corn-supply of the Peloponnesian War (q.v.) in 405 B.C.
metropolis until this was entrusted to see
Aegy'ptus (Aiguptos), (1) Danaus;
special officers (see Annona).
(2) see Egypt.
Ae'don, in Greek mythology, daughter of Ae'lian (Claudius Aelianus) (fl. c. A.D.
Pandareos and wife of Zethus king of
200), author of fourteen books (in Greek)
Thebes. She was envious of Niobe (q.v.) of 'Historical Miscellanies' (PoikUe His-
her sister-in-law (wife of Amphion brother
torid), showing wide but uncritical learn-
of Zethus) because she had many children,
ing about political and literary celebrities ;
and plotted to kill them. By mistake she and of a work ' On the Characteristics of
slew her own child, Itylus (or Itys), and
Animals' in seventeen books. Both works
mourned for him so bitterly that the gods
(the former partly in epitomized form)
changed her' into a nightingale. Swinburne survive.
has a poem Itylus' on this legend. Cf. the
story of Procne (see Philomela). Ae'lius Aristi'des, see Aristides.
Aee'tes (Aieies), in Greek mythology, Ae'lius Lampri'dius, see Historia Au-
son of Helios (q.v.), king of Colchis, gusta.
brother of Circe (q.v.), and father of Ae'lius Spartia'nus, see Historia Au-
Medea. See Athamas and Argonauts. gusta.
Aega'tes I'nsulae, islands off Lilybaeum Aemi'lius Paullus, LCcius (d. 160 B.C.),
in Sicily, near which was fought in 242 B.C. son of the Aemilius Paullus who fell at
the naval battle in which Q. Lutatius Cannae
(q.v.), was consul for the second
Catulus, the Roman admiral, defeated time in 168 B.C., when the Macedonian
the Punic fleet, thereby terminating the War,
owing to the incompetence of the
First Punic War (see Punic Wars). Roman generals and the indiscipline of the
Aegean Sea (Aigaios Pontos), the part army, was going ill for Rome. He restored
of the Mediterranean between Greece and discipline and in a single campaign
Asia Minor. The etymology of the name is brought the war to a successful end by his
unknown. victory at Pydna. He formed, with the

23. Aeneas 7 Aeneid
books that had belonged to the Ma- families by representing their ancestors
cedonian king (Perseus), the first private in the heroic age, and for recounting,
library at Rome. The proceeds of the by the device of prophecy, the historical
booty gained at Pydna were enormous, triumphs of Rome and of Augustus. The
and were scrupulously paid into the Ro- striking feature of the poem is the con-
man treasury. He combined old Roman ception of Italy as a single nation, and of
virtue with Greek enlightenment. He vas Roman history as a continuous whole from
father of Scipio Aemilianus (q.v.). There the founding of the city to the full expan-
is a life of him by Plutarch. sion of the Empire. The greatness of the
theme made a profound impression on the
Aene'as (Gk. Ainaias), son of Anchisea
and Aphrodite (qq.v.) and a member of Roman people the dignity with which it
;
Is set forth is enhanced by the poet's
the younger branch of the royal family
tender contemplative spirit, his sympathy
of Troy (see genealogy under Troy). In
with suffering humanity, and his feeling
the Iliad ' he is represented as under the
'
for nature. The poem has been criticized
disfavour of Priam and is a secondary
hi certain respects.
Its mythology is stiff
figure. But it is there stated (xx. 307) that
*
his might shall reign among the Trojans,
and conventional; the Homeric Olympus
and his children's children, who shall bo was discredited in Virgil's day (for the
born in the aftertime*. There was an poet's treatment of religion see under
Virgil). Many of the characters are said
early tradition that he escaped when Troy
to lack force and distinctness. The epis-
fell, and went to some place in Italy.
ode of Aeneas and Dido has been the sub-
Timaeus (q.v.) appears to have been the
first to make him the originator of the
ject of the most frequent censure. It is out
of harmony with our ideas of right and
future Roman State. The tale of Aeneas's
wanderings to Italy was perhaps told by wrong that Dido, deserted by Aeneas,
should perish, while Aeneas goes shabbily
Stesichorus (q.v.), and we have it in its
'
fully developed form in the Aeneid' (q.v.)
away scot-free. It is unlikely that Virgil's
of Virgil. That the legend was officially contemporaries would have taken this
view. A marriage with Dido, a foreign
recognized in the 3rd c. B.C. is shown by
the fact that after the 1st Punic War the woman, is not one of which they would
Acarnanians requested the help of Rome have approved; Dido's passion had en-
tangled Aeneas, but the will of the
against the Aetolians on the ground that
their ancestors alone of all the Greeks had gods, they would have said, must prevail
not taken part in the expedition against over human passion; and the incident
has many parallels in Greek mythology
Troy. The legend was adopted by l^abius
Pictor in his history, and by the poets (Theseus and Ariadne, Jason and Medea,
&c.). It is perhaps unintentionally that
Naevius and Ennius. See also Tabula
the poet so powerfully enlists our sym-
Iliaca. For the reconciliation of the
pathy for Dido. Conington says that
legend with the story of the founding of
me by Romulus see Rome, 2. Virgil in this episode 'struck the chord
of modern passions, and it vibrated more
Z" f
neid (Aeneis), an epic poem in twelve powerfully than the minstrel himself
books of hexameters by Virgil, composed expected '.
in seclusion in Campania during the last Virgil, in composing the Aeneid, drew on
eleven years of his life, 30-19 B.C. (that many sources; primarily on the 'Iliad'
is to say, after the battle of Actium had and the 'Odyssey', combining in his
finally established the principate of poem the travel -adventures of the latter
Augustus). The poem was left unfinished with the warfare of the former, and
and Virgil is said, when dying, to have modelling on Homer many episodes (e.g.
ordered it to be destroyed. He had read the funeral games in Bk. V, the visit to
portions of the work to Augustus and his the nether world in Bk. VI, the descrip-
family hi 23 B.C. tion of the shield in Bk. VIII). Virgil
The poem is a national epic, designed also drew on the Homeric Hymns and
to celebrate the origin and growth of the Cyclic poets, the *Argonautica* of Apol-
Roman Empire, The groundwork is the lonius Rhodius, the Greek tragedians,
legend that Aeneas (q.v.), after the fall and on his own immediate predecessors,
of Troy and long wanderings, founded a Ennius, Lucretius, and others. His pic-
Trojan settlement in Latium, the source ture of the lower world appears to be a
of the Roman race (see Rome, 2). This poetic treatment of the various opinions
afforded scope for the mythical and about it, popular and philosophical,
supernatural element found in Homeric prevalent in his day. The contents of
epic, for recalling the ancient beliefs and the work may be briefly summarized ae
practices of magic and religion, for glori- follows :
fying the Roman people and their chief Book I. Aeneas, who for seven years

24. Aeneid 8 Aeneid
since the fall of Troy has been pursuing: storm; Dido and Aeneas take refuge in
his way to Latium, has Just left Sicily. a cave and are united by the design of
Juno, knowing that a race of Trojan Juno and Venus. The rumour of their
origin will in future ages threaten her love reaches the neighbouring larbas, who
beloved city Carthage, incites Aeolus to has been rejected by Dido and who now
let loose a storm on the Trojan fleet. Some appeals to Jupiter. Jupiter orders Aeneas
of the ships are wrecked, and the fleet scat- to leave Carthago. Dido discovers Aeneas's
tered; but Neptune pacifies the sea and preparations for departure and makes a
Aeneas reaches the Libyan coast. The piteous plea. Her lover's sorry excuses
remaining ships also arrive and the for his desertion call down on him Dido's
Trojans are kindly received by Dido, withering rejoinder. But Aeneas is stead-
qiieen of the newly founded Carthage and fast. Dido, distraught by anguish and
widow of Sychaeus. She has fled from fearful visions, makes a last entreaty for
Tyre, where her husband had been killed delay, and when this is unavailing pre-
by his brother Pygmalion, king of the pares for death. When she sees the
land. Venus, though Jupiter has revealed Trojan fleet sailing away, she takes her
to her the future destiny of Aeneas and own life, heaping in her frenzy curses on
his race, dreading the hate of Juno and Aeneas and his race.
the wiles of the Tyrians, designs that Book V. The Trojans return to Sicily,
Dido shall be smitten with love for Aeneas. landing hi the territory of their com-
Book JI. At Dido's request, Aeneas patriot Acestes (q.v.). The anniversary
relates the fall of Troy and the subsequent of the death of Anchises is celebrated with
events: the building of the Trojan Horse, sacrifices and games. First, a race between
' '
the guile of Sinon, the death of Laocoon four ships. Gyas in Chimaera is leading ;
(qq.v.), the firing of the city, the desperate ho heaves his pilot overboard for not
resistance of Aeneas himself and his com- hugging close enough the turning point;
rades, the death of Priam, and his own ho is passed by Cloanthus in 'Scylla'.
final flight by the order of Venus; how Sergestus in 'Centaur' runs aground.
ho carries off Anchises his father on his Mnestheus in 'Pristis' presses hard on
shoulders and takes his son lulus (As- Cloanthus, but the latter wins. Then a
canius) by the hand; his wife Creusa foot-race, in which Nisus, leading, slips
follows but is lost. Her ghost tells him the and falls and deliberately trips Salius
destiny that awaita him. so as to give the victory to his friend
Book III. (Aeneas continues his narra- Euryalus. A boxing match follows be-
tive.) He and his companions build a tween Dares of Troy and Entellus of
fleet and set out. They touch at Thrace Sicily the former is worsted and Aeneas
;
(where Aeneas hears the voice of his stops the fight. Finally a shooting-match,
murdered kinsman Polydorus from his and a riding display by thirty -six youths
grave) and Delos. The Delian oracle led by Ascanius (see Ludus Troiae)* Mean-
bids them sock the land that first bore while the Trojan women, incited by Juno
the Trojan race. This is wrongly inter- and weary of their long wanderings, fire
preted to mean Crete, from which they the ships four are destroyed, but a rain-
;
are driven by a pestilence. Aeneas now storm quells the fire. When the Trojans
learns that Italy is meant. On their sail away, Palinurus the helmsman, over-
way the Trojans land on the island of come by sleep, falls into the sea and is lost.
the Harpies (q.v.) and attack them. Book VI. Aeneas visits the Cumaean
The Harpy Cclacno prophesies that they Sibyl, who foretells his wars in Latium.
shall found no city till hunger compels After plucking by her direction the Golden
them to eat the tables at which they Bough (see Di,ana) he descends with her,
feed.' At Buthrotum in Chaonia they through the cave of Avernus, to the nether
find Helenus the seer (son of Priam) and world. They reach the Styx and on the
Andromache, and the former instructs hither side see the ghosts of the unburiod
Aeneas in the route he must follow, visiting dead; among them Palinurus (q.r.), who
the Cumaean Sibyl and founding his city recounts his fate and begs for burial. The
where by a secluded stream he shall find Golden Bough gains for Aeneas permission
a white sow with a litter of thirty young. from Charon to cross the Styx. Cerberus
Aeneas pursues his way and visits the (q.v.) is pacified with a drugged honey
country of the Cyclops (q.v.) hi Sicily; cake. Various groups of dead are seen:
his father dies at Dropanum. Thence he infants, those unjustly condemned, those
reaches Libya. who have died from love (among whom
Book IV. Dido, though bound by a Dido receives in silence the renewed ex-
vow to her dead husband, confesses to her cuses of Aeneas), and those who have
Bister Anna her passion for Aeneas. A fallen in war. They approach the entrance
hunting expedition is interrupted by a to Tartarus, where the worst criminals

25. Aeneid 9 Aeneid
suffer torments; but turn aside to Ely- and urges alliance with the Etruscans.
sium, where the blest enjoy a care -free He leads Aeneas through the city and ex-
life. Here Aeneas finds and vainly seeks plains the origin of various Roman sites
to embrace Anchises. Ho sees ghosts and names. Vulcan, at the request of
drinking at the river Lethe (q.v.) and Venus, forges armour for Aeneas. The
Anchises expounds to him the reincarna- shield is described, on which are depicted
tion of souls after a long purgation (a various events in the future history of
Pythagorean doctrine drawn by Virgil Rome, down to the battle of Actium.
perhaps from the Orphic and Eleusinian Book IX. While Aeneas is thus absent,
traditions). Among these souls he points Turnus blockades the Trojan camp.
out to his son those of men who are in the He sets the Trojan ships on fire, but
future to be illustrious in Roman history, Neptune turns them into sea-nymphs.
from Romulus and the early kings to Nisus and Euryalus pass through tho
the great generals of later days, Augustus enemy lines at night to summon Aeneas.
himself, and his nephew Marcellus (q.v.), They slay some of the enemy in their
to whose brief life the poet makes touching drunken sleep, but fall hi with a hostile
allusion. Aeneas and the Sibyl then leave column and are killed, Nisus gallantly
the lower world through the Ivory Gate, striving to save his friend. The Rutulians
through which false dreams are sent to assault the camp ; Ascanius performs his
mortals (perhaps a hint that what the first exploit; Turnus is cut off within
poet has described is no more than a the rampart, but escapes by plunging into
dream). This book contains the memor- the river.
able lines (851-3) on the destiny of Rome, Book X. The gods debate in Olympus,
the central thought of the whole poem : and Aeneas secures tho alliance of Tar-
Tu regero imperio populos, Romane, me- chon, king of the Etruscans, and returns
mento ; to the scat of war, accompanied by Pallas
Hae tibi crunt artes: pacisque imponere (son of Evander) and Tarchon. Turnus
morem, opposes them on the shore, to prevent the
Parcere subjectis, et debellaro superbos. junction of the Trojan forces. In the
Book VII. The Trojans reach the mouth battle Turnus kills Pallas; he pursues a
of the Tiber hero the Harpy's prophecy
; phantom of Aeneas contrived by Juno
(see Bk. Ill above) is fulfilled, for the and is borne away to his city. Aeneas
Trojans eat cakes of bread which they wounds Mezentius, whose son Lausus tries
have used as platters. Of this land, to save him ; Aeneas reluctantly kills the
Latium, Latlnus is the king. His daughter lad. Mezentius addresses his gallant horse,
is Lavmia. The goodliest of her wooers Rhaobus, and again faces Aeneas; horse
is Turnus, king of the Rutuli; but her and man are killed.
father has been divinely warned to marry Book XI. Aeneas celebrates the Trojan
her to a stranger who shall come. The victory and laments Pallas. A truce with
embassy sent by Aeneas is welcomed by the Latins is arranged. The Italian chiefs
Latinus, who offers alliance and the hand debate. Drances proposes that the issue
of his daughter. Juno calls out the Fury shallbe settled by single combat between
Allecto, who stirs Amata (tho mother of Turnus and Aeneas, and Turnus accepts.
Lavinia) and Turnus to fierce hostility The debate is interrupted by a report that
against the Trojans. Tho wounding of a Aeneas and his army are moving against
stag from the royal herds by Ascanius the city. A cavalry engagement follows
causes an affray; Latinus is overborne, in which Camilla takes the lead. Tarchon
and the Italian tribes gather to expel the plucks Vonulus from his horse and carries
Trojans. Virgil enumerates these and their him off before him on his saddle-bow.
leaders; notable among them besides Camilla is killed by Arruns and is avenged
Turnus are Mezentius 'scorner of the by Opis, messenger of Diana.
gods', a tyrant hated by his people, Book XII. The Latins are discouraged,
Messapus, Virbius (son of Hippolytus, and Turnus decides to meet Aeneas alone.
q.v.), and the Volscian warrior-maid, Latinus and Amata try in vain to dis-
Camilla (q.v.). suade him. A compact is made for the
Book VIII. Aeneas faces war reluc- single combat. But Juturna, sister of
tantly, but is encouraged by the god of Turnus, stirs up the Rutulians, and the
the river Tiber, who sends him to seek general fighting is resumed. Aeneas is
the alliance of the Arcadian Evandcr wounded by an unknown hand, but healed
(q.v.), the founder of the city on tho by Venus. The Trojans, seeing tho city of
Palatine hill, part of the future Rome. Latinus loft unguarded, attack and fire
On the bank of the Tiber Aeneas sees a it. Amata takes her life. Turnus returns
white- sow with her litter, as foretold from his pursuit of Trojan stragglers and
by Helenus. Evander promises support the opposing forces suspend their struggle

26. Aeolians 10 Aeschines
while he and Aeneas fight. Aeneas wounds Demosthenes. His parents were in
rival
Turnus. Even now he would spare him; modest circumstances (his father Atro-
but he sees on his body the spoils of metus was a schoolmaster). As a young
Pallas and in fierce anger buries his sword man he won some distinction in military
in his enemy's body. service and then became a tragic actor
The 'Aeneid' was edited after Virgil's and a public clerk. He first appears in
death by his friends Varius Rufus (q.v.) political life in 348 as an envoy sent
and Plotius Tucca. For famous editions by Eubulus (q.v.) to the Peloponnese to
and translations see under Virgil. It may organize Hellenic resistance to Philip.
be of interest to recall that the two pas- But, with Eubulus, he soon abandoned
sages of the 'Aeneid' which Dr. Johnson this policy and became an advocate of
picked out for their wonderful quality peace with Macedonia. He formed part
were the descriptions of the tomb of of the embassies sent to Philip for tho
Polydonis dripping blood (Hi. 19 et seq.), negotiation of the Peace of Philocrates
and of the Trojan ships turned to sea- and in 343 was impeached by Demos-
nymphs (ix. 77 et seq.). thenes (q.v.) for his conduct on these
Aeo'lians (Aidleis), see Migrations and occasions. His defence (which we possess)
Dialects.
was successful and he was acquitted.
Demosthenes was to have been associated
Ae'olis, the northern portion of the coast with one Timarchus in the accusation of
of Asia Minor, from the Troad to the river
Aeschines, but Aeschines had retorted by
Hennus, which was occupied by Aeolian bringing a charge against Timarchus of
Greeks (see Migrations). immoral life. His speech against Timar-
Ae'olus (Aiolos), (1) described in the chus (345), which was successful, is the
'Odyssey* as the son of Hippotes and first of the three speeches of Acschines
friend of the gods, who lives an agree- that have survived. He next came into
able life in the floating island Acolia. He prominence in 340, when, at a session
gave Odysseus a leather bag in which of the Amphictyonic (q.v.) council, the
were secured the winds adverse to the Locrians of Amphissa, at the instigation
latter's voyage, and thus he later came to of Thebes, were to bring an accusation
be regarded as the god of the winds. Virgil of sacrilege against Athens. To forestall
(Aen. i. 50-9) depicts him as keeping the this, Aeschines accused the Locrians them-
winds imprisoned in a cave. (2) A son of selves of sacrilege (see Sacred Wars).
Hellen (see Hellenes and Deucalion) and A Sacred War was decreed against Am-
the legendary ancestor of the Aeolian race phissa, and it was this war which pro-
(see Migrations) and father of Sisyphus, vided the pretext for the invasion of
Athamas, Salmoneus, Alcyone (qq.v.), Philip of Maccdon (q.v.) that culminated
CalycS (mother of Endymion, q.v.), and in the battle of Chaeronea (q.v.). Tho
other children, action of Aeschines on this occasion was
made the ground of part of Demosthenes'
Ae'pytus (Aiputos), see Merope. denunciation of Aeschines in his speech
Aera'rium, the treasury of the Roman 'On tho Crown*. The rivalry between
republic. It was maintained under tho the two statesmen finally manifested
empire, but distinguished from the fiscus itself when Ctesiphon in 336 proposed that
(q.v.) or imperial treasury. Its chief Demosthenes should be
publicly crowned
source of income in imperial times was the for his services to the state. Acschines
revenue of the senatorial provinces, and indicted Ctesiphon for tho alleged illegality
it appears to have borne the cost of main- of this proposal, and in his speech six
tenance of public buildings, of the con- years later, which survives, attacked the
struction of roads, and of State religion; whole career of Demosthenes as
injurious
it issued tho copper coinage. Though to Athens. The jury by an overwhelming
nominally under the management of majority acquitted Ctesiphon. Aeschines
the Senate, the control of the emperors retired into exile and died there.
over it increased with time, till the two The speeches of Aeschines reveal his
treasuries were in practice almost indis- Ho was
Inferiority to his great rival.
tinguishable. The aerarium was housed in excessively vain, and deficient in nobility
the temple of Saturn beside the Capitol. of character and
political sagacity, but
See Rome, 14. there is no proof of the corruption of
The aerarium mUitare was a pension which Demosthenes accused him. His
fund for disabled soldiers instituted by speeches are in a lighter, livelier style than
Augustus in A.D. 6. those of Demosthenes; he had had no
Ae'schines (Aischinfe), a famous Athen- special rhetorical training, but his stage
ian orator, was born about 390 B.C. and experience had given him a good delivery
was thus a few years older than his great and a wide acquaintance with literature.

27. Aeschylus 11 Aesopus
Among Lander's 'Imaginary Conversa- ous language and bold metaphors. His
tions' is one between Aeschines and lyrics, which play a more important part
Phocion.(q.v.). in his tragedies than in those of his suc-
cessors, reached the highest point in that
Ae'schylus (Aischulos) (525-456 B.C.), a branch of poetic art. His plays are per-
great Greek tragic poet, born at Eleusis, meated with the religious spirit; he ac-
near Athens, of a noble family. He took cepts the traditional mythology without
part in the Persian Wars; his epitaph criticizing it in the manner of Euripides,
(composed, it is said, by himself) represents but tries to reconcile it with morality.
him as fighting at Marathon, and his Among the ideas prominent to his plays
description of Salamis in the 'Persians' are those of destiny or fatality, working
suggests that he was present at that battle through the divine will and human pas-
also. He visited Syracuse at the invitation of sion ; of the heredity of crime, both in the
Hieron I (see Syracuse, 1) more than once sense that crime provokes vengeance in
and died at Gela in Sicily; an anecdote the next generation, and in the sense of
relates that an eagle dropped a tortoise on the inheritance of a criminal taint; and
his bald head and killed him. He appears of the vengeance of the gods on over-
at some time in his life to have been weening pride (hubris). His principal
prosecuted on the charge of divulging characters are drawn without complexity
the Elcusinian mysteries, but to have ex- or elaboration, governed by a single
culpated himself. Pericles was his choregus dominating idea, such as vengeance (e.g.
(see Chorus) &t some uncertain date; perhaps Clytemnestra in the 'Agamemnon'). For
in the production of the 'Persians' in 472, Aristophanes' estimate of Aeschylus, see
or possibly later. Aeschylus was honoured Frogs.
as a classic soon after his death and special Quintilian, while commending the sub-
privileges were decreed for his plays. limity, dignity, and eloquence of Aeschy-
Ho had a son, Euphorion, like himself a lus, thought him at times uncouth and
tragic poet. lacking in harmony.
Aeschylus wrote some ninety plays
Aescula'pius, the Latin form of the
(including satyric dramas), of which seven Greek name Asclepius (q.v.). The first
have come down to us: 'Suppliants',
temple to him was founded at Rome in
'Persians', 'Seven against Thebes', 'Pro- 293 B.C., in consequence of a severe
metheus Vinctus' (qq.v.); and 'Agamem- The temple, with a sana-
' pestilence.
non', Choephoroe ', and 'Eumenides', torium, stood on the island of the Tiber.
forming the Orcsteia (q.v.) trilogy.
He also wrote paeans, elegies, and epi- Ae'son (Aison), see Argonauts.
grams, of which very scanty fragments
Ae'sop (Aisopos), the traditional com-
survive. He was the rival in his early poser of Greek fables about animals, is
days of Pratinas, Phrynichus (qq.v.), said by Herodotus to have lived in the
and Choerilus (of Athens, /Z. 482), and in
reign of Amasis of Egypt (middle of the
later life of Sophocles. He won his first
6th c. B.C.), and to have been a slave of
prize in 484, was successful again with
ladmon, a Thracian. Many stories about
the 'Persians' in 472, was defeated by
animals, adapted to moral or satirical
Sophocles in 468, and won his last victory ends, circulated under his name, and we
with the 'Oresteia* in 458. are told that Socrates, when in prison,
Aeschylus generally regarded as the
put some of these into verse. A collection
is
real founder of Greek tragedy: by the of them was turned into choliambic verso
introduction of a second actor ho made
true dialogue and dramatic action pos-
by Babrius (q.v.), and five books of Latin
fables after Aesop were published by
sible. Though Aristotle says that Sopho-
Phaedrus (q.v.). An apocryphal life of
cles introduced scenery, Aeschylus must
have used some primitive spectacular
Aesop was written by Maximus Planudes,
a 14th c. Byzantine monk. Landor has
devices, e.g. in the 'Prometheus'. He two 'Imaginary Conversations' between
also developed the use of stage dress. His
Aesop and his fellow-slave Rhodope (q.v.).
plays show rapid progress in dramatic
technique: the 'Suppliants', an early Aeso'pus, CLAUDIUS, a celebrated Roman
play, is simple, lacks action, and has no tragic actor hi the 1st c. B.C. Horace
individual characters; the 'Oresteia' has places him on an equality with Roscius
outstanding individual characters and a (q.v.), the great comic actor. He was a
well developed plot. Aeschylus chose friend of Cicero, and during the latter 's
themes of the utmost grandeur, often exile contributed to move popular feeling
superhuman and terrible, generally from in his favour by allusions to him on the
mythology (the 'Persians' is an excep- stage. Cicero says that he had great power
tion), and delighted in picturesque, sonor- of facial expression and gesture.

28. Aethiopica 12 Aganippe
Aethio'pica, (Aithiopika), see Novel. Antiochus III in his war with Rome (see
Selcucids) ; and his defeat in 190 brought
Ae'thiopis (Aithiopis), a lost poem of tlie about the
League's virtual extinction.
Epic Cycle (q.v.), ascribed to Arctmus of
Miletus, a sequel to the Iliad. It con- Afra'nius, Lttcius (b. c. 150 B.C.), a
tained the story of the coming to Troy of writer of Roman comedies (togatae, q.v.),
Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons, and of which only fragments survive. He ap-
her slaying by Achilles. It told also of pears to have desired to found a national
the coming of the Ethiopian Memnon comedy, and his plays depicted Italian
(whence the name of the poem), who like- life and characters. He had a long popu-
wise was killed by Achilles; and of the larity, and Horace in Ep. 11. i. 57 says
death of Achilles himself. that admirers compared him to Menandor
Afrani toga convenisse Monan-
Ae'thra (Aithrd), the mother of Thesous ('Dicitur
dro*). Afranius acknowledges hi5 indebt-
(q.v.).
edness to Menander, but the extent of
Ae'tna, a Lathi didactic poem in 644 this is unknown.
hexameters attributed by its MS. and
Donatus ^Vgame'des, see Trophonius.
buL J
doubtfully by to Virgil,
probably not by him. It was perhaps by*^ 'Agame'mnon (Agamemnon), in Greekmy-
Lucilius, the friend to whom Seneca the thology, son of Atreus, brother of Mene-
Philosopher addressed his Letters*. It laus, husband of Clytemnestra (qq.v.),
*
describes and purports to explain the erup- king of Mycenae, and leader of the
tions of Mt. Etna. These are due, not to Greek host in the Trojan War (q.v.).
Vulcan or Enceladus (see Giants), but He is represented in the 'Iliad* as a
to the action of wind in cavities of the valiant fighter, a proud and passionate
earth on subterranean fires (substantially man, but vacillating in purpose and easily
the same explanation as that of Lu- discouraged.
cretius, vi. 680 et seq.). The poem closes When the Greek expedition against
with an Illustration of the moral character Troy had assembled at Aulis occurred the
of the forces of nature. On the occasion incident of the sacrifice of Agamemnon's
of a sudden eruption the inhabitants of daughter Iphigenia (q.v.). During the
a neighbouring town hastily fled, each siege the most famous event in which
carrying the property ho thought most Agamemnon was involved was his disas-
precious. But they wore overwhelmed. trous quarrel with Achilles (see Iliad).
A certain Amphinomus and his brother, When Troy at last was captured, Aga-
however, who carried away nothing but memnon returned safely home with his
their aged father and mother and their captive, Cassandra (q.v.). But now the
household gods, were spared by the flames. curse of the house of Pclops (q.v.) over-
took him. Clytemnestra had never for-
Aetolian League, a
confederacy of given the sacrifice of her daughter Iphi-
cities or districts of Aetolia, developed
genia, and during Agamemnon's absence
after the death of Alexander. It was
Aegisthus had become her paramour
governed at first by an Assembly of all (see Pelops). She now received Aga-
free Aotolian citizens (including the citi- memnon with a show of welcome, and
zens of federated cities adjoining Aetolian
then, with Aegisthus, murdered him and
territory) at the head of it was a general
;
Cassandra. It was to revenge his death
elected annually. There was also a that his children, Orestes and Electra, later
Council, possessing little power, composed killed Clytemncstra and Aegisthus (see
of delegations from the League cities pro-
Orcsteia, Orestes, Electra).
portionate to their military contingents.
a tragedy by Aeschy-
When, with the expansion of the League, Agamemnon, (1) A
administration by the Assembly became lus ; see Qresteia. (2) tragedy by Seneca
the Philosopher, perhaps based on the
impossible, a small committee of the
of Aeschylus, or more
Council was formed which, with the 'Agamemnon*
general, became the real government of
probably on some later play. It is far
to the tragedy of Aeschylus and
the League; the Assembly, however, re- inferior
tained the decision of peace and war. From shows variations of detail.
The ghost of
about 290 the League occupied Delphi, Thyestes is introduced urging Aegisthus
and it gradually extended its territory till to the crime, and Aegisthus confirms a
weaker Clytemnestra in her purpose.
by 220 it controlled the whole of central Cassandra is not murdered with
Greece outside Attica, and became the Aga-
chief rival of Macedonia in the peninsula. memnon, but later. Electra appears and
effects the escape of her brother Orestes.
But the Aetolians were a predatory people
and the League was not a source of Agani'ppe, a spring sacred to the Muses
Hellenic unity and strength. It joined on Mt. Helicon (q.v.). Cf. Hippocrene.

29. Agathocles 13 Agora
Aga'thocles (Agathoktts), see Syracuse, up again after Marius's army reforms.
$3. The creation of a professional army meant
that some sort of a pension system had to
A'gathon (AgatMn), an Athenian tragic
be devised, and until Augustus pensions
poet, the most important of the successors
of the three great tragedians. His first took the form of grants of public land.
Hence the land legislation of Saturninus,
Tictory was gained in 416 B.C. It is the
Sulla, and Julius Caesar (in his first con-
banquet held at his house to celebrate this
sulship). The proposed agrarian law of
victory that forms the setting of Plato's
Rullus (63) had a different object, because
'Symposium* (q.v.). Later ho wont to the it was really an attempt by Crassus and
court of Archolaus of Macedonia and died
there (c. 400). Only fragments of his work
Caesar to strengthen their position against
survive. Agathon was an innovator: ho Pompey. There seems to have been no
serious problem in connexion with the
was the first to construct a tragedy on an
ager publicus in the early empire.
imaginary subject with imaginary charac-
ters; he made the songs of the chorus Ager Roma'nus, see Rome, 4;
mere interludes (embolima) without refer-
ence to the subject of the play, thus pre- Agesila'us (Agesildos) (c. 444-361 B.C.),
king of Sparta from about 398. He was
paring the way for the division of the chosen king in place of his nephew, who
tragedy into acts ; and he also introduced was the direct heir, by the influence of
some changes hi the character of the
Lysander (q.v.). He was lame, and his
music. His lyrics are satirically described
' opponents drew attention to the warning
by Aristophanes in the Thesmophoria- of an ancient oracle against a 'lame reign'
zusae' as like the walking of ants. at Sparta. But ho was a man of great
Aristophanes also makes fun of Agathon's energy and intelligence. His successful
effeminate appearance.
campaigns against the Persians in 396-5
Aga've (Agauc), the mother of Pentheus and his victory over the Thebans at
(see Bacchae). Statins is thought, from a Coronea are related by his friend Xeno-
passage in Juvenal (vii, 82 et seq.), to phon in his 'Hellenica*. He was less
have written a libretto * Agave' for the successful in the wars of Sparta with
pantomimic dancer, Paris. Thebes 379-362. Sparta needed money,
and in order to earn a subsidy for her,
Age'nor, In Greek mythology, king of Agesilaus conducted an expedition in aid
Tyro, and father of Cadmus and Europa of an Egyptian prince against Persia in
(qq.v.). 361. In this he met his death. There is
Ager publicus, land acquired by con- a life of him by Ncpos, and see below.
from States conquered by Rome.
fiscation
Afjcsilaus, one of the minor works of
In theory it belonged to the Roman Xenophon, an encomium on his friend
People, in actual practice it was looked Agesilaus (see above). Its authenticity as
after by the Senate and magistrates a work by Xenophon has been questioned,
consul, censor, quaestor. There wore two but is generally accepted. Xenophon
chief types of tenure. (1) It might be held relates in some detail the campaign of
on lease at a yearly rental, e.g. the fertile Agesilaus against Tissaphernes in 395 and
Ager Campanus ;the censors wore respon- the march back to Greece through Ma-
sible for this rental.(2) It might bo held cedonia and Thessaly, and gives a full
by squatters (posscssores) against a rental, description of the battle of Coronea, where
but not on lease. They wore therefore at Xenophon may have fought under
liberty to go when they liked or liable to Agesilaus against his own countrymen.
bo expelled at the State's pleasure. This The remaining events of his reign are
rental was collected by the local govern- touched on more briefly. The author then
ments and paid to the censors. There was passes from his deeds to his virtues, and
a tendency after the Punic Wars for such illustrates his piety, justice, wisdom, and
squatters to absorb largo tracts of waste patriotism.
land and in time to regard it as their own,
despite the Licinian (q.v.) laws, which A'gon ('contest'), (1) see Comedy, 2;
limited the amount of land which could (2) at Athens, also an action at law ; (3) at
be held. Hence arose the evictions and Rome, an athletic or musical contest
disputes in connexion with the legislation forming part of the public games, see
of the Gracchi, who desired to resume the Ludi, 2.
public land in order to create settlements A'gora (Agora), in Greece, an assembly
for distressed citizens. Stability was of the people, as opposed to tho Council
restored by a law of 111 (for which see (Boule, q.v.). In tho constitution of
E. G. Hardy's 'Roman Laws and Char- Cleisthenes (q.v.) the name was applied to
ters'), but the question of public land came the assembly of the people hi each tribe