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1323 International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Engineering & Technology Volume 1, Issue 4, June 2012 Geographical Routing in Intermittently Connected MANETs with Guaranteed Delivery at Void Locations R.RAJA SEKHAR1, S.SYED BASHA2 1 Assistant Professor Department of CSE, JNTUA College of Engineering, Anantapur (A.P), India e-mail: drasharaj2002@gmail.com 2 M.Tech Department of CSE, JNTUA College of Engineering, Anantapur (A.P), India e-mail: syed.cs5119@rediffmail.com Abstract— The major challenges in MANETs are finding the change in the network, thus routing becomes more destination, routing and robust communication dealing with challenging. A routing protocol is needed to route the packets constant topology change. When there is no end to end path at to the destination through intermediate nodes without packet any given time between source and destination via intermediate loss. In MANETs there is an end-to-end path assumed between peers then it forms partitions in the network. It is said to be source and destination. But in the real world scenario, this case intermittently connected network. LAROD is the geographical is not valid that means routing protocol must handle routing protocol designed for such type of networks. Basically intermittent connectivity due to absence of end-to-end path. greedy approach is followed in any of the routing protocol to Geographic routing or position based routing has been forward the packets. LAROD-LoDiS is also based on greedy adopted as basic routing primitive for designing packet forwarding along with store carry forward principle. But it works until greedy forwarding is possible. When greedy communication protocols in MANETs due to its scalability, forwarding fails then the protocol has to follow some other robustness and simplicity. It mainly relies on an extremely recovery strategy to move the packets from void areas. The areas simple geographic greedy-forwarding strategy at every hop to where nodes do not travel are void areas. In this paper, we move a data packet to a locally optimal next-hop node with a propose a Timer Based DFS recovery technique to handle void positive progress towards the destination node. But Greedy in LAROD-LoDiS protocol (TBD-LAROD)1. Our main aim is to forwarding may fail at some point such as in LAROD-LoDiS. improve it in terms of delivery ratio. We also calculate the timer This is called local minima or void area or dead end. If there function to find the next optimal node considering forwarding are areas where nodes (e.g. UAVs) never travel then packet area, void flag and load balancing. Simulation is done in ns2. should be routed around these areas. There are many protocols Results show that new routing protocol outperforms existing one developed to handle void problem for geographic routing in by improving delivery ratio. MANETs requires that network is fully connected. Examples of protocols include GPSR [5], face routing etc. But these Index Terms - Geographic Routing; LAROD-LoDiS; TBD- methods are not applicable to the intermittently connected LAROD; VOID HANDLING;Depth First Search MANETs(IC-MANETS) due to absence of end-to-end path at any given time . Disaster area scenarios and military I. INTRODUCTION operations are two application areas for IC-MANETs [1].This paper discusses about void handling in military reconnaissance operations using swarming UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles) Mobile adhoc networks (MANETs) has evolved as one of which monitor the selected areas and report the activities the hot research topic in the wireless communication. There within areas [1]. has been a tremendous change in the wireless technologies In this paper, we propose a Timer based DFS technique for since the evolution of the mobile devices such as cellular intermittently connected MANETs based on the concept of phones, Laptops etc. There are two different approaches for contention based forwarding [10] with beaconless routing [9]. enabling the wireless communication between two nodes. One It uses a novel void handling or void avoiding mechanism. It is is by maintaining the centralized administration or fixed also scalable and fully distribute. When ever a node finds itself infrastructure and the other is infrastructure less approaching stuck areas or trapped in, it raises a void flag. communication. An Adhoc network contains the group of This flag is a local variable maintained at each node. The flag nodes participating in the data communication without fixed information is piggybacked with data forwarding infrastructure. Each node in the network acts both as router communication to broadcasting nodes. The next hop node can and host. Due to the node mobility there is a frequent topology be located using the single back-off function called timer function. This function is integrated with void handling, 1 LAROD-LoDiS with void handling or Timer based DFS- LAROD forwarding area determination and load balancing. Our (TBD-LAROD) protocols are same names used for proposed protocol. 498 All Rights Reserved © 2012 IJARCET
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1323 International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Engineering & Technology Volume 1, Issue 4, June 2012 technique delivers packets to the destination along paths that [7] and SIF [8] based on contention based forwarding. They are near optimal in the depth first search sense. In this paper are not used as the void handling is not properly defined in we compare our technique with LAROD-LoDiS protocol these protocols. TENT rule is not suitable for beaconless CGR without void handling. Our simulation results show that timer based routing. This protocol requires node to collect 1-hop based DFS- LAROD has superior performance compared to information to identify void. LAROD-LoDiS in terms of total packets delivered, reducing BOUNDHOLE with Restricted Flooding [6] is the hybrid transmissions per data packet and choosing best node to void handling technique where one technique fails to handle forward a packet. voids then other is used. It cannot handle a void if the destination is inside the hole, because it is possible that all the nodes in the hole are not closer to the destination than the void II. RELATED WORK node is. So it uses Restricted Flooding (RF) to guarantee the delivery of packets to destination. But it is not suitable for Basic elements in the protocol defined irrespective of clustered networks such as IC-MANETs and DTNs. categories of the geographical routing protocol are: 1) Forwarding area determination: Forwarding area III. PROPOSED PROTOCOL contains a set of nodes called tentative custodians, one A. Assumptions of which will be selected as a custodian (packet holder). For implementing this protocol we have made the Circle forwarding area following assumptions for IC-MANETs: Each mobile node has radio range RR and unique ID. Mobile nodes (UAVs) have been deployed within two S ||d|| dimensional coordinate system. D Nodes can communicate with other nodes only at distance A less than RR. Each node is aware of its location through GPS or some Void area localization algorithms [11]. At the boundaries there are regions where greedy routing is Progress forwarding area possible. Fig. 1 Forwarding areas in geographical routing B. Timer Based Depth First Search technique Above figure shows the forwarding areas adopted by This section explains the proposed protocol for handling existing protocols. Besides these we have 60◦ circle sector, a void in IC-MANETs based on distributed Depth First Search Reuleaux triangle (not shown in fig 1). In fig. area with gray approach. crossed lines is void area (no nodes). Within radio range of Terminologies used in this technique: custodian S, Each sub area with same color is forwarding area. This area is chosen so that loop should not be formed and there Distance of node is the Euclidean distance from custodian should be positive delivery progress towards destination D can to destination node. be made at each hop. Progress of the node is the difference between distances from destination to the custodian and to the neighboring 2) Timer function to find Next hop: This is the back-off nodes. function used for locating next hop from tentative custodians. Void Flag is the local variable maintained at each node. It It can be built based on the location information to minimize indicates whether the node is virtual dead end or real dead- distance a packet travels from source to destination D or to end. best node location. Protocol works as follows: 3) Void avoidance/detection: Communication void occurs when the nodes does not travel in the forwarding areas. This At each hop custodian broadcasts an ReTF (Request-To- reduces the delivery ratio if we do not follow some other Forward) message to its neighbors to hire the next best node; strategy for routing packet to D. Different strategies in [3,5,7] once receiving the ReTF message, each neighbor first like face routing, GPSR, flooding and increasing transmission evaluates a timer function based on the node‟s progress, and power are used to handle communication void. void flag value, and sets a corresponding competing timer; when the timer expires, the nodes responds the custodian with GPSR [5] routing protocol uses beaconing based on greedy an RsTF (Response-To-Forward) message to notify its forwarding. It uses face routing when greedy forwarding fails willingness to be the next hop. The tentative custodians at void locations to relay packets hop by hop. Right hand rule strategy is used to recover from void areas. Some of the cancel their timers after overhearing the RsTF message from beacon-less routing protocols are IGF [3], GeRaf [4], PSGR new custodian. Retransmission may take place until the new 499 All Rights Reserved © 2012 IJARCET
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1323 International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Engineering & Technology Volume 1, Issue 4, June 2012 custodian is found with low void flag value. The details of C. Locating next hop using back-off function void flag updation and function to locate new custodian is Here we use Depth First method to find the next given in C and D sections. custodian during data delivery. When tentative custodians Below Figures gives a simple example depicting receive ReTF message from custodian, each node evaluates how a data packet is delivered from a source S to a the timer function to determine back-off time before destination D in TBD-LAROD at some instance. Gray nodes responding to custodian. This timer function FNH is used to in 2(a)-2(c) represent the custodian, an arrow between two select the next custodian in the DFS manner. nodes represents an effective data transmission and dotted The criteria to determine next custodian is that: lines represent movements by custodians when packet could not be transmitted. Other nodes not participating in the data for every broadcast the data packets should be forwarded to transmission are not shown in the figure. The numbers node which is nearest to destination besides nodes are the void Flag. 2(a)-2(c) also show how the Nodes which are in void regions should be penalized. void Flag value in nodes involved in a successful data delivery are locally maintained. Node X is identified as a In this function we combine issues such as forwarding dead-end at 2(a). Fig. 2(c) shows that a new path will be area determination, load balancing2 and void handling in the found for a new data packet based on void Flag obtained in single integrated function. Before defining FNH, let ||x, y|| be previous stages. Euclidean distance between two nodes x and y. voidFlag (x) be the void flag of node x. Let B, A, D be Custodian, Neighbor to B, Destination respectively: If the Euclidean distance between nodes A, D is less than B, D then FNH is defined as: 0 0 FNH= [c1 (1-∆d/RR) + c2 (1-Er/Ei) +c3U+K (1+ ∆VF)] ρ S D 1 - (1) Otherwise the function FNH is defined as X Fig. (a) FNH = [c1 (1-∆d/RR)+c2 (2-Er/Ei) + c3 (U+1) + K(1+ ∆VF)] ρ - (2) where from equations (1) and (2) VF-void flag 0 ∆VF=VF (A)-VF (B) and (∆VF ≥ -1)3 0 ∆d=||AD||-||BD|| S D 1 c1 +c2 +c3=1, c1, c2, c3 >0 X FNH – function to find next hop. Fig. (b) Packet discarded when TTL expires U is random number between [0, 1] 0 0 RR-nominal radio range 0 0 Er – Remaining energy in node 0 0 Ei – Initial energy in node 0 0 0 ρ- Parameter based on node density to reduce collisions S D K- Constant used to select node with less void flag value. 1 Lemma: For custodian, necessary condition to choose next X hop with zero void flag the constant „K‟ should be greater Fig. (c) than or equal to 2. (for proof refer appendix 1) Fig. 2 Example of packet forwarding by TBD-LAROD technique 2 Load balancing is not discussed in this paper, we have used Ei=Er for evaluation purposes. 3 If VF(A)=VF(B)=0 or VF(B)-VF(A) < -1, we set ∆VF =-1 so that additional packet delay is avoided. 500 All Rights Reserved © 2012 IJARCET
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1323 International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Engineering & Technology Volume 1, Issue 4, June 2012 D. Void Flag(VF) Updation speed used in our simulations might seem low compared to 1) Initially set VF=0. the node speeds in other MANET papers, but it is actually 2) Custodian includes „VF‟ value and its ID in broadcast close to the average speed used in most simulations. The ReTF message. speed presented in most papers is the top speed for the 3) Neighbors respond with RsTF message with its‟ VF‟ value random waypoint mobility model. According to the equations and distance to destination. in [2] for a top speed of 20 m/s and minimum speed of 0.1 4) Custodian after receiving RsTF message from node X: m/s with no pause time 49.8% of the nodes would move i) if X is not closer to destination than itself (custodian is slower than 1.4 m/s. Adding the fact that most simulations use dead end) it increments VF to VFRsTF+1, pause times this means that they have large number of VFRsTF is VF value from node X embedded in RsTF relatively stable nodes that can be used to create stable routes. message. The performance has been tested in the scenario of data ii) otherwise transmission involving communication voids. In this we Replaces VF value with VFRsTF. create an empty circular area in the network in which a source iii) For handling situation when there is no path between and a destination are selected at the two opposite sides of this source and destination, if current VF value exceeds area. The number of nodes (UAVs) in the network is 95. threshold, it is set to 0. Simulation results are shown in Fig.1 and Fig.2 (XGraphs in 5) For adapting to highly dynamic network VF is set to 0 ns-2). The data points taken in the evaluations below are the periodically. average result of ten simulations. In Fig. 1 we see the impact of the packet lifetime on the delivery ratio. The Red curve in figures shows LAROD-LoDiS without void handling and Green curve shows LAROD-LoDiS-with-VOID IV. RESULTS AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION HANDLING. Both the metrics has been calculated by increasing the packet life time as 200s, 300s, 400s, 600s, 800s In this section we evaluate performance of our and 1000s.The LAROD-LoDiS-with-VOID HANDLING proposed routing protocol through simulations. It has (TBD-LAROD) outperforms the existing LAROD-LoDiS been implemented in ns-2 simulator [12] using Random protocol in terms of delivery ratio. It has been increased up to way point mobility model. The two main evaluation nearly 100% by increasing the packet life time. Also we have metrics used are delivery ratio and transmissions seen that how Void Flag value is used to avoid the packets generated per data packet (overhead).Delivery ratio is approaching the void areas there by reducing the packet drops important metric because it determines quality of service and choosing optimal node based on function, FNH. The perceived by application. Transmissions generated per improvement with high node density results from the initial data packet is also important because lean protocols will distribution of the packet taking less time. LAROD actively allow either higher throughput or low power tries to forward a packet toward the destination through consumption by nodes. In each run, a network is wireless forwards, and with increased node density so the randomly deployed within a 2000m by 2000m rectangle forwarding opportunities are increased. The overheads in the area. The basic simulation parameters are summarized in two protocols, as presented in Fig. 2, illustrate what is table 1. expected from the protocol design showing overhead for node density of 95 under Random Way Point mobility. In Table 1 Basic Simulation Parameters LAROD–LoDiS, the overhead increases with a decreased node density as delivery latency increases, and more packets exist in the network for their maximum lifetime (TTL). For Parameter ns-2 LAROD-LoDiS with void handling technique, the overhead is reduced to some extent. Void Flag value plays an important Reconnaissance area 2000x2000m role to select the node with less value there by reducing the Radio Range 250m path length to all nodes. Collisions may occur during request Node density 20 nodes/km2 response which chooses bad neighbor as next hop, so we can Node Speed 1.4m/s adjust the ρ parameter and use existing scheduling mechanism Packet Life Time(TTL) 1000s to handle this situation. Data Generation rate 36 pkt/hour/uav The impact of network performance greatly depends on the Constants -(c1,c2,c3,K) (0.5,0.4,0.1,2) system parameters and mobility model being chosen. So for convenience and comparison purposes of our protocol we have used Random Way Point mobility model. For our simulation in ns-2 we have used default ns-2 radio range. For Random waypoint mobility model [13] we have used the constant speed setting of 1.4m/s. The node 501 All Rights Reserved © 2012 IJARCET
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1323 International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Engineering & Technology Volume 1, Issue 4, June 2012 Depth First Search approach. We have also defined a timer function for choosing next hop that includes forwarding area determination, void handling and load balancing for geographical forwarding. Load balancing is not addressed in this paper, as we have used same energy level throughout the simulations. But void handling has been addressed clearly based on void flag updation. Simulation results show that TBD-LAROD has better performance than LAROD-LoDiS. Our future work includes comparisons with other mobility models, finding the boundary regions where greedy forwarding is possible and calculating the energy levels of nodes to make routing more efficient. APPENDIX Choosing Parameter „K‟ Now let us discuss how to choose „K‟ so that DFS method works correctly. To avoid choosing stucked or void node again, we have to choose the node with low Void Flag than that node to be next hop. Fig. 3 Packet Life Time with Delivery ratios Since ∆d ≤ RR, for given Constant K, ∆VF and ρ FNH ≥ K (1+∆VF) ρ - (3) and FNH ≤ (2+K (1-∆VF)) ρ - (4) Consider nodes X be void node, Y be next node to be selected. Denoting FNHX as for node X and ∆VFX , FNHY as for node Y and ∆VFY From (3) FNHX ≥ K (1+∆VFX) ρ - (5) From (4) FNHY ≤ 2+ (K (1+∆VFY)) ρ - (6) i) If ∆VFX ≥ ∆VFY + 1, then we have FNHY ≤ (2+K*∆VFx) ρ - (7) From (5) and (7), we have FNHX – FNHY ≥ (K-2) ρ - (8) From (8), we get that if FNHX ≥ FNHY +1 if K ≥ 2, Fig. 4 Packet Life Time with Transmissions per data then FNHX ≥ FNHY, which means Node Y, has Void Flag less packet than X, so Y is selected as next hop. V. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK VI. REFERENCES In MANETs constraints on resources and capability limitation of nodes make it inconvenient and not scalable [1] Erik Kuiper and Simin Nadjm-Tehrani, “Geographical Routing With to design state-based routing protocols. Periodical Location Service in Intermittently Connected MANETs,”IEEE beaconing makes use of high bandwidth and energy Trans. Vehicular tech., vol. 60, No. 2, pp.592-604. FEB 2011. wastage in high density networks. In this paper, we have [2] E. Kuiper, “Mobility and routing in a delay-tolerant network of proposed a beaconless technique to handle void based on unmanned aerial vehicles,” Licentiate thesis, Linkoping Univ., 502 All Rights Reserved © 2012 IJARCET
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1323 International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Engineering & Technology Volume 1, Issue 4, June 2012 Linkoping, Sweden, 2008. [3] B. M. Blum, T. He, S. Son, and J. A. Stankovic, “IGF: A Robust State- Free Communication Protocol for Sensor Networks,” in Technical report CS-2003-11, CS Department, University of Virginia, 2003. [4] M. Zorzi, R. R. Rao, “Geographic Random Forwarding (GeRaF) for Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks: Multihop Performance,” in IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, vol. 2, Oct.-Dec. 2003. [5] B. Karp and H. T. Kung, “Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing for Wireless Networks,” Proc. ACM MobiCom 2000, Boston, MA, Aug. 2000. [6] Q. Fang, J. Gao, and L. J. Guibas, “Locating and Bypassing Routing Holes in Sensor Networks,” Proc. IEEE INFOCOM 2004,Hong Kong, Mar. 2004. [7] Y. Xu et al., “PSGR: Priority-based Stateless Geo-Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks,” Proc. IEEE MASS 2005, Washington D.C., November, 2005. [8] D. Chen, J. Deng, and P. K. Varshney, “A State-Free Data Delivery Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks,” in proc. Of IEEE WCNC 2005, New Orleans, LA, USA, March 2005. [9] M. Heissenbüttel, T. Braun, T. Bernoulli, M. Wälchi. BLR: beacon- less routing algorithm for mobile ad hoc networks. Computer communications. July 2004. Elsevier [10] H. F¨ussler, J. Widmer, M. K¨asemann, M. Mauve, and H. Hartenstein, “Contention-Based Forwarding for Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks,” in Ad Hoc Networks Journal (Elsevier), Vol. 1, No. 4, November 2003. [11] A. Sawides, C.-C. Han, and M. B. Strivastava, “Dynamic Fine- grained Localization in Ad-Hoc Networks of Sensors,” Proc. of MobiCom 2001, Rome, Italy, July 16-21. [12] http://www.isi.edu/nsnam/ns - The network simulator-2 (NS-2). [13] W. Navidi and T. Camp, “Stationary distributions for the random waypoint mobility model,” IEEE Trans. Mobile Comput., vol.3, no. 1, pp. 99–108,Jan./Feb. 2004. 503 All Rights Reserved © 2012 IJARCET
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